Essential French Grammar
Essential French Grammar is a student-friendly French grammar designed to give
learners a rm foundation on which to build a real understanding of both spoken and
written French.
Clear explanations of grammar are supported by contemporary examples, lively cartoon
drawings and a variety of exercises.
Key features of each chapter:
each grammar point explained initially with reference to English
parallels between English and French provided where relevant
‘key points’ box and tables that summarize grammar concepts
real-life language examples in French, with English translations
a variety of exercises to reinforce learning
a contemporary primary source or literary extract to illustrate grammar in context.
A glossary of grammatical terms in French and English, useful verb tables, and a key to
the exercises are also provided, making this an ideal resource for both independent and
class-based learners.
Essential French Grammar is an innovative reference grammar and workbook for
intermediate and advanced undergraduate students of French (CEFR levels B2 to C1,
ACTFL Intermediate to Advanced).
Mike Thacker was Director of the Language Centre at the University of Surrey from
1991 to 2005 and has taught at all degree levels. He is co-author of several coursebooks
for Spanish A level, A Spanish Learning Grammar and Friday Afternoon French (with
Casimir d’Angelo).
Casimir d’Angelo is Director of the Language Unit in the Engineering Department of the
University of Cambridge. He is co-author of Friday Afternoon French (with Mike
Thacker).
Essential Language Grammars
Essential Language Grammars are available for the following languages:
French
German
ESSENTIAL
FRENCH
GRAMMAR
Mike Thacker • Casimir d’Angelo
First published 2013
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2013 Mike Thacker and Casimir d’Angelo
The right of the authors to be identi ed as author of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with
sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any
electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only
for identi cation and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Thacker, Mike, author.
Essential French Grammar / Mike Thacker and Casimir d’Angelo.
pages cm
Text in French and English.
Includes index.
1. French language--Grammar. 2. French language--Textbooks for foreign speakers--English. 3. French
language--Spoken French. 4. French language--Study and teaching--English speakers. I. d’Angelo, Casimir,
author. II. Title.
PC2112.T49 2013
448.2’421--dc23
2012044322
ISBN: 978-0-415-82596-2 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-4441-6689-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-203-78453-2 (ebk)
Typeset in Sabon
by Saxon Graphics Ltd, Derby
CONTENTS
v
Acknowledgements xi
Introduction xiii
Glossary of grammatical terms xv
1 NOUNS 1
1.1 Types of nouns 3
1.2 Gender 7
1.3 Number 27
Nouns in context 36
Exercises 39
2 DETERMINERS 43
2.1 The three types of article 44
2.2 Forms of the articles 44
2.3 The de nite article 45
2.4 The inde nite article 47
2.5 The partitive article 49
2.6 Omission of the article 50
2.7 Demonstrative determiners 51
2.8 Possessive determiners 53
Determiners in context 55
Exercises 57
3 PRONOUNS 61
3.1 Subject pronouns 63
3.2 Direct and indirect object pronouns 68
3.3
y 71
3.4 en 72
3.5 Re exive pronouns 73
3.6 Order of object pronouns 75
3.7 Stressed pronouns 77
3.8 Coordination of personal pronouns 78
3.9 Demonstrative pronouns 79
3.10 Possessive pronouns 80
3.11 Inde nite pronouns 81
Pronouns in context 83
Exercises 85
4 ADJECTIVES 88
4.1 The position of adjectives 90
4.2 The feminine of adjectives 95
4.3 Adjectives with a second masculine form 103
4.4 The plural of adjectives 103
4.5 Compound adjectives 105
4.6 Agreement of adjectives with
on 106
4.7 Agreement of adjectives according to meaning 106
CONTENTS
vi
4.8 Adjectives of colour 107
4.9 Foreign borrowings 108
4.10 Special cases 109
4.11 Adjectival expressions 110
4.12 Comparison of adjectives 111
4.13 Verbal adjectives 113
Adjectives in context 115
Exercises 117
5 NUMBERS 121
5.1 Cardinal numbers 122
5.2 Ordinal numbers 126
5.3 Word order when a cardinal and ordinal number are
together 128
5.4 Approximate numbers 128
5.5 Time 129
5.6 Dates 129
5.7 Measurements 130
5.8 Fractions and calculations 130
5.9 Quanti ers 131
Numbers in context 133
Exercises 135
6 ADVERBS 138
6.1 Adverbs and adverbials 140
6.2 Formation of adverbs ending in -ment 140
6.3 Different types of adverbs 143
6.4 Comparison of adverbs 146
6.5 Position of adverbs 148
6.6 Inversion after certain adverbs 150
Adverbs in context 151
Exercises
153
7 NEGATION 157
7.1 Position of negative expressions 158
7.2 Order of negative expressions 159
7.3
de with a direct object in negative sentences 159
7.4 ne … aucun 160
7.5 ne … guère 160
7.6 ne … jamais 160
7.7 ne … ni … ni 161
7.8 ne … nul(le); ne … nulle part; ne … nullement 161
7.9 ne … pas 161
7.10 ne … personne 162
7.11 ne … plus 162
7.12 ne … que 163
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
vii
7.13 ne … rien 163
7.14 Omission of ne in speech 164
7.15 Use of non and si 164
7.16 n’est-ce pas
? 164
7.17 Use of ne without a negative sense 164
7.18
Negative words with sans 165
Negation in context 166
Exercises 168
8 VERBS 1 171
8.1 The verb 171
8.2 Characteristics of the verb 171
8.3 Transitive and intransitive verbs 185
8.4 Pronominal verbs 186
8.5 Impersonal verbs 191
8.6 Verbal aspect 191
Verbs in context 198
Exercises 200
9 VERBS 2 : TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 204
9.1 Tenses 204
9.2 The radical and verb endings 207
9.3 The present tense 210
9.4 The imperfect tense 215
9.5 The compound past 220
9.6 The simple past 223
9.7 The imperfect and the simple past contrasted 226
9.8 The pluperfect tense 227
9.9 The past anterior 230
9.10 The future tense 232
9.11 The compound future 236
9.12 The conditional tense 239
9.13 The compound conditional 242
9.14 Summary of the sequence of tenses in conditional clauses 245
Indicative tenses in context 246
Exercises 247
10 VERBS 3 : THE IMPERATIVE, THE INFINITIVE,
PARTICIPLES 250
10.1 The imperative 250
10.2 The in nitive 255
10.3 Participles 265
10.4 The present participle 266
10.5 The gerund 271
10.6 The past participle 272
Imperatives, in nitives and participles in context 282
Exercises 284
CONTENTS
viii
11 VERBS 4 : THE SUBJUNCTIVE 287
11.1 The present subjunctive 289
11.2 The compound past subjunctive 290
11.3 The imperfect subjunctive 290
11.4 The pluperfect subjunctive 292
11.5 The double compound past subjunctive 293
11.6 Examples of the ve subjunctive tenses 294
11.7 Uses of the subjunctive 294
The subjunctive in context 302
Exercises 304
12 PREPOSITIONS 307
12.1 Coordination of prepositions 309
12.2 Verb + preposition constructions 310
12.3 Adjectives and adverbs + prepositions 310
12.4 Differentiating between prepositions and adverbs 311
12.5 Prepositions and their uses 311
12.6 Prepositions meaning ‘in’ and ‘to’ before geographical names 328
Prepositions in context 329
Exercises 333
13 CONJUNCTIONS 337
13.1 Coordinating conjunctions 338
13.2 Subordinating conjunctions 341
13.3 Subordinating conjunctions followed by the indicative 341
13.4 Subordinating conjunctions followed by the subjunctive 344
13.5 Subordinating conjunctions followed by the indicative or
subjunctive, depending on meaning 345
Conjunctions in context 347
Exercises 349
14 RELATIVE PRONOUNS 352
14.1 Agreement with the past participle (see also 10.6.4) 353
14.2 The invariable relatives, qui, que, quoi, dont, où 354
14.3 Qui 355
14.4 Que / qu’ 355
14.5 Quoi 356
14.6 Dont 357
14.7 Où 357
14.8 Lequel 358
14.9
Restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses 359
Relative pronouns in context 360
Exercises 362
7KLVSDJHLQWHQWLRQDOO\OHIWEODQN
xi
Acknowledgements
We wish to express our gratitude to Bianca Knights and Lucy Winder, for their
encouragement and guidance during the writing of this book, and to Andrea Hartill and
Samantha Vale Noya, of Routledge, for their help and advice in its nal stages. We
would also like to thank a number of anonymous reviewers for their feedback on several
chapters. We owe a special debt of gratitude to our colleague Thomas Godard for his
valuable comments on several chapters, which helped us to clarify a number of complex
points of grammar.
The publishers would like to thank Editions Gallimard and the Estate of Jacques Prévert
for their permission to reproduce ‘Inventaire’ by Jacques Prévert and Nino Ferrer for
permission to reproduce the lyrics to ‘Les Cornichons’.
7KLVSDJHLQWHQWLRQDOO\OHIWEODQN
xiii
Introduction
Essential French Grammar was written out of a conviction that grammar is the key to
attaining a real understanding of both spoken and written French. While it is possible to
communicate with native speakers at a basic phrase book level using a limited number of
structures, knowledge of the grammar of the language is essential to hold a conversation
of any complexity, or write a letter or an essay successfully. In our long experience of
teaching and examining, grammar plays a fundamental part in the learning process of
students who aspire to higher levels of competence.
Our aim in writing Essential French Grammar is to provide a clear description of French
grammar, together with practice exercises, for English-speaking undergraduate students
of French and for those who are studying French in preparation to go to university.
University students of French will bene t from using this book, whether they are
specialist linguists or non-specialists studying a module in French as part of another
degree. In terms of the commonly accepted European system for assessing achievement in
a language, the book corresponds approximately to levels B1 to C1 of the Common
European Framework Reference for Languages (Independent User to Pro cient User).
In each of the 15 chapters we explain brie y how grammar works in English and then in
French. This method enables students to grasp the fact that French has different ways of
creating its grammatical rules, which derive from a distinctive cultural and linguistic
tradition. The structure of each chapter follows a sequence:
each grammar point is explained initially with reference to English
parallels between English and French are then pointed out in a contrastive way
Key points relating the grammar in question are explained
a description of how the grammar is formed, where appropriate, and its main uses are
then explored, with translated examples
in the nal section of each chapter,
the grammar point is exempli ed in passages that show how it works in context
a sequence of ve exercises gives ample practice for students to test themselves.
In chapters where several different grammar areas are covered, the above sequence is
followed for each point. Occasional illustrations show grammar ‘in action’.
The book also includes:
a Glossary, provided at the beginning of the book, for those who are less familiar
with grammar terms
an Appendix describing Punctuation, accents and the French phonetic alphabet
Verb tables
Answers to the exercises
INTRODUCTION
xiv
an Index
In general, we have followed the conventions for explaining French grammar found in
English grammars of French, pointing out some conceptual differences where
appropriate (e.g. in Chapter 8, Verbs 1).
In 1990, new rules for spelling were agreed by Francophone countries, which are set out
in the Recti cations orthographiques du français (1990). These rules, which we have
summarized in the Appendix, affect such aspects as the hyphenation of numbers, the use
of the circum ex accent and compound words. Since this reform of spelling is not
prescriptive, and has not yet taken hold in France, we have chosen to follow the
traditional rules.
It is often the case that incorrect usage of a given structure in the spoken language has
become so widespread it is generally accepted. In cases of this kind we have pointed out
that the structure is con ned to speech. Similarly, we have indicated language that is
employed only in formal circumstances or used in a literary or legal register. Where we
feel the need to point to language that is ungrammatical, an asterisk is placed before the
example.
Casimir d’Angelo
Mike Thacker
March 2013
xv
Glossary of grammatical terms
Active and passive voice Sentences are either active or passive. In an active sentence, the
subject carries out the action of the verb, e.g. Un juge l’a mis en examen (A judge
investigated him). In the passive version of this example, what was the object of the
active sentence, l’ (him), becomes the subject of the passive verb, Il (he), and the
agent, juge (judge), appears after par : Il a été mis en examen par un juge (He was
investigated by a judge). Verbs which take a direct object (transitive verbs) can be
used in either an active or a passive way.
Adjective Adjectives are words used to describe nouns. In French, adjectives agree with
nouns in gender and number, e.g. dix bouteilles vertes (ten green bottles). Vertes is a
feminine plural adjective. Adjectives can either be attributive, i.e., stand next to the
noun as in dix bouteilles vertes or predicative, i.e., separated from the noun they
describe, e.g. Les bouteilles sont vertes (The bottles are green).
Adverb Adverbs give more information about a verb or another element in a sentence,
such as an adjective or another adverb. Adverbs can tell you how, when, where and
to what degree something happens or is, e.g. Elle travaille bien / tard / là / trop (She
works well / late / there / too much); Il est complètement fou (He’s quite mad).
Af rmative sentence An af rmative sentence is one in which we assert a fact or state
agreement to something, as opposed to a negative one in which we refuse, deny, or
contradict something.
Agreement Words change their form to ‘be in agreement with’ other words.
Verbs change according to whether the person speaking is ‘I’ , ‘you’, ‘s/he’, etc.: aller
(to go) becomes je vais (I go), tu vas (you go). il / elle va (he / she goes), etc.
Determiners agree with nouns in gender and number: e.g. ‘this’ can be translated by
three different forms according to the noun which follows: ce garçon (this boy), cet
homme (this man), cette femme (this woman).
Adjectives also agree with nouns in gender and number: e.g. the adjective blanc in its
masculine singular form is un vin blanc (a white wine) and in its feminine plural form
des chemises blanches (white shirts).
A past participle in a compound verb agrees with a preceding direct object: Ta
grand-mère ? Je l’ai vue hier. (Your grandmother? I saw her yesterday).
Antecedent In a relative clause the antecedent is the preceding element to which the
relative pronoun or adjective refers. In La lle que vous avez rencontrée hier est ma
cousine (The girl you met yesterday is my cousin), the noun la lle is the antecedent
and que the relative pronoun.
Article See De nite article, Inde nite article, Partitive article
Aspect ‘Aspect’ is a linguistic term which de nes actions in relation to time, as perceived
by the speaker. There is an opposition between those verb tenses that express actions
in terms of the ow of time and those which are ‘bounded’ by time, i.e., do not have
a sense of time passing. Je travaillais (I was working) describes the rst type, J’ai
travaillé (I worked) the second.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
xvi
Auxiliary verb An auxiliary verb is a verb which combines with a participle or an
in nitive, e.g. to form a compound tense. The two auxiliary verbs used in French are
avoir, which precedes the majority of verbs, and être, which is used with 20 or so
intransitive verbs, pronominal verbs and to form the passive voice: Elle a apporté les
disques (She has brought the discs); Il est arrivé (He has arrived).
Cardinal number Cardinal numbers are those which refer to quantity, and are used for
counting: dix (10), vingt-trois (23), huit cent quatre-vingt-douze (892), etc.
Clause A clause is part of a sentence which contains its own verb, but which does not
necessarily make complete sense. There are two types of clause, ‘main’ and
‘subordinate’. A main clause has an independent meaning within the sentence; a
subordinate clause cannot function independently without another clause. In Ils sont
revenus parce qu’ils avaient oublié les clés de la maison (They came back because
they had forgotten the house keys), the main clause Ils sont revenus can stand as the
sentence on its own; the subordinate clause parce qu’ils avaient oublié les clés de la
maison cannot stand independently.
Comparative Comparatives are adjectives and adverbs which emphasize a particular
quality by comparing the degree to which two nouns possess that quality: La France est
plus grande que la Belgique (France is bigger than Belgium); La plupart des fromages
anglais sont moins forts que les français (Most English cheeses are less strong than
French ones).
Complement A complement is a word or phrase that completes the meaning of a noun,
verb, adjective or adverb.
Verb: Beaucoup de touristes visitent la cathédrale de Chartres. (Many tourists visit
Chartres cathedral)
Noun: La voiture de mon père est en panne. (My father’s car has broken down)
Adjective: Il est jaloux de son frère. (He’s jealous of his brother)
Adverb: Il a bu trop de vin. (He’s drunk too much wine)
Compound tense See Tense
Conditional sentence A conditional sentence is a sentence which usually consists of two
clauses, a subordinate clause introduced by the conjunction si (if) and a main clause:
Si vous ne savez pas comment aller au centre sportif [subordinate clause] il faut
demander à Charles [main clause]. (If you don’t know how to get to the sports
centre, you should ask Charles.)
Conjugation A conjugation is a group of verbs. There are three such groups of regular
verbs in French, which are distinguished by their in nitive endings. These endings are:
(1) -er, e.g. parler (to speak), (2) -ir, e.g. nir (to nish), and (3) -re, -oir and some
verbs in -ir, e.g. vendre (to sell) / concevoir (to conceive) / venir (to come).
Conjunction Conjunctions are words like et, mais and parce que, which link words,
phrases or clauses, e.g. Georges et Amélie sont venus parce que tu voulais parler avec eux
des vacances. (Georges and Amélie have come because you wanted to talk to them
about the holidays)
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
xvii
Copula A copula is a link verb, such as être and sembler, which joins the subject of a
sentence to the predicate: Louis Pasteur était un fameux chimiste français (Louis Pasteur
was a famous French chemist); Ça semble triste (That seems sad).
Demonstrative We use demonstrative determiners and pronouns when we wish to point
to a particular person, thing, etc.: ce, cet, cette, etc. (this, that, etc.)
Demonstrative adjectives See Determiners
Demonstrative pronouns See Pronouns
Determiner Determiners are words placed before a noun to give it a context. Inde nite
article: un / une / des (a, an, some); de nite article: le / la / les (the); demonstrative
adjective: ce / cet / cette / ces (this, that, those); possessive adjective: mon / ma / mes,
etc. (my, etc.)
Direct object See Object
Exclamation Exclamations are words or sentences which express emotions, such as
surprise, wonder, urgency, horror. J’en ai marre ! (I’m fed up!); Allez ! (Come on!)
Gender Words in French are either masculine or feminine in gender, e.g. le tapis
(carpet), la vache (cow).
Gerund The gerund in French has the same form as the present participle: parlant,
nissant, écrivant. It is preceded by en and expresses an action which is simultaneous
with that of the verb: En ré échissant il souriait. (While thinking he smiled)
Imperative See Mood
Impersonal verb Impersonal verbs are verbs whose subject has no particular identity, e.g.
Il neige (It is snowing); Il est dif cile de savoir quoi faire. (It is dif cult to know what to
do)
Inde nite article The inde nite article (English: a / an / some) is used to indicate a
person, animal, thing or idea that has not been previously mentioned e.g. un
ordinateur (a computer), une voiture (a car), des pommes de terre ([some]
potatoes).
Inde nite pronoun Inde nite pronouns are words that do not refer to a speci c person
or thing, like quelqu’un (someone), personne (nobody, anybody).
Indicative See Mood
Indirect object See Object
In nitive The in nitive is the form of the verb given in dictionaries and which is not
in ected. In English the in nitive consists of the word ‘to’ plus the verb, e.g. ‘to
grow’. French in nitives end in either -er, -ir, -re or -oir, e.g. regarder (to look at),
choisir (to choose), écrire (to write), apercevoir (to perceive, to notice).
In x An in x is an element inserted into a verb, e.g. -iss- inserted into nir (to nish), to
make the present participle, nissant.
Interrogative pronoun Interrogative pronouns are words used to introduce questions,
like qui ? (who?), combien ? (how much / many?) and pourquoi ? (why?).
Intransitive verb See Transitive and intransitive verbs
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
xviii
Inversion Inversion takes place when the normal order of words is inverted, as in
questions: As-tu vu le lm le plus récent de Klapisch ? (Have you seen the latest lm by
Klapisch?)
Irregular verb See Regular and irregular verb
Main clause See Clause
Modal verb Modal verbs are semi-auxiliary verbs, like pouvoir (can, to be able to) and
devoir (must, to have to), which are followed by the in nitive. Modal verbs
communicate a particular mood or intention to the verb which follows. Je ne peux
pas venir (I can’t come); Je ne dois pas venir (I mustn’t come).
Mood The following three moods of the verb are used to express differing ideas and
emotions. These are:
Indicative. This mood is used for statements of fact and certainty: Il boit du café tous
les matins (He drinks coffee every morning).
Imperative. This mood is used for commands. Commands are made in both the
positive and the negative: Regarde ! (Look!); Ne regarde pas en bas ! (Don’t look
down!)
Subjunctive. This mood is for uncertainty, unreality, necessity, wishes and hopes:
J’aimerais qu’ils viennent nous voir demain. (I would like them to come and see us
tomorrow)
Negative sentence A negative sentence is one in which we refuse, deny, contradict or say
‘no’, e.g. Nous n’allons jamais au théâtre (We never go to the theatre).
Noun A noun is the name that we give to a person, animal, thing or idea. There are two
types of noun: common, e.g. passager (passenger), renard (fox), chambre (room),
philosophie (philosophy) and proper, which refer to particular persons, places, or
objects, e.g. Depardieu, Les Alpes, Marseille, Crédit Agricole.
Number Number refers to words being singular or plural, e.g. le chien (dog), les chiens
(dogs), la rue (street), les rues (streets).
Object A direct object is a word which receives the action of the verb directly, e.g. le
repas in Elle a préparé le repas (She prepared the meal). An indirect object is one
which receives the action of the verb indirectly, e.g au policier in J’ai donné mon
passeport au policier (I gave my passport to the policeman).
Ordinal number Ordinal numbers are used to arrange things in order: premier ( rst),
deuxième (second), etc.
Participle See Past participle, Present participle
Partitive article The partitive article, du, de l’, de la, des, is a determiner expressing the
idea of ‘some’ with mass nouns and abstract nouns: du pain ([some] bread), de la
beauté ([some] beauty).
Passive voice See Active and passive voice
Past participle The past participle is the form of the verb ending, for regular verbs, in -é
(-er verbs) -i (-ir verbs) or -u (-re verbs): parler (to speak) parlé (spoken); nir (to
nish) ni ( nished); vendre (to sell) vendu (sold). It has two main functions: as
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
xix
an adjective, e.g. la langue parlée (the spoken language) and as part of a verb, as in
the compound past tense, e.g. J’ai vendu mon appartement (I’ve sold my at).
Person Verb endings are always related to a subject, which can be in the rst, second or
third person, singular or plural:
je / j’ (I) rst person singular
tu (you) familiar second person singular
il, elle (he, she, it) third person singular
nous (we) rst person plural
vous (you) formal second person plural and polite second person singular
ils, elles (they) third person plural
Personal pronoun See Pronoun
Possessive Possessive determiners and pronouns tell us who is the possessor of something
or show a relationship between different people, or people and things / ideas.
Possessive determiners See Determiner
Possessive pronouns See Pronoun
Preposition A preposition links one part of a sentence (e.g. a noun) with the rest of the
sentence, e.g. près de in Le musée est près de la cathédrale. (The museum is near the
cathedral). By changing the preposition we change the meaning of the sentence, e.g.
by replacing près de by loin de (far from), dans (in) or en face de (opposite) in the
example.
Present participle The present participle is the form of the verb ending in -ant; regardant
(looking at), disant (saying), écrivant (writing).
Pronominal verb These are verbs like se laver, that are accompanied by a re exive
pronoun like me, te and se, etc. See Pronoun. The verb is only re exive if the subject
is the same as the object, e.g. Je me suis lavé très vite (I washed [myself] / got washed
quickly).
Pronoun Pronouns stand in the place of nouns whenever it is unnecessary to refer to the
noun. Personal pronouns appear in four main places in a sentence:
as the subject, je (I); as the direct object, me (me); as the indirect object, lui (to him /
her / it); after a preposition, pour moi (for me).
Other types of pronouns are:
Demonstrative: celui, celle, etc. (the one). See Demonstrative
Interrogative: qui ? (who?), quoi ? (what?), etc. See Interrogative pronoun
Possessive: le mien (mine), le tien (yours), etc. See Possessive
Re exive: me (myself), te (yourself), se (himself, herself, itself, oneself, themselves),
etc. See Pronominal verb
Relative: qui (who, which, that), que (who[m]), which, that, what), où (where), etc.
See Relative clause
Quanti er Quanti ers are determiners that are placed before a noun to indicate amount
or quantity: assez de (enough), beaucoup de (much, many), peu de (few).
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
xx
Question words See Interrogative pronoun
Radical The radical of a verb is the part of the verb that does not normally change; the
variable part of the verb is the ending, which changes with person, tense and mood.
In parler (to speak), parl- is the radical and -er the ending; in choisir (to choose),
chois- is the radical and -ir the ending. The radical carries the meaning of the verb.
Reciprocal sentence A reciprocal sentence is one in which the subjects of the verb are
doing something to one another: Ils se félicitent (They congratulate each other).
Regular and irregular verb Regular verbs, e.g. parler (to speak), nir (to nish), vendre
(to sell), conform to predictable models in the formation of the different tenses. If
you know that a verb is regular you can work out from the model the form that you
need. Irregular verbs do not always conform to a predictable model for their
formation and so it is important to learn their forms. Many common verbs, such as
aller (to go), venir (to come), savoir (to know) are irregular. Tables of irregular
verbs are on pp. 399–417.
Relative clause Relative clauses are subordinate clauses introduced by relative pronouns
like qui (who, which, that). They refer back to a previous element in the sentence,
called the antecedent, and they link two clauses together, e.g. Le garçon qui m’a
accompagné au match s’appelle Pierre. (The boy who / that went with me to the
match is called Pierre). The antecedent is Le garçon.
Semi-auxiliary verb Semi-auxiliary verbs such as aller (to go), devoir (to have to),
pouvoir (to be able to), venir (to come) lose their full meaning when followed by
another verb in the in nitive They express nuances of tense and mood: Le train va
partir. (The train is about to depart); Je ne peux pas chanter (I can’t sing).
Sentence A sentence is a group of words arranged so as to make a comprehensible
meaning. The order of words in a sentence varies from one language to another.
Sentences can be:
Simple, i.e., consist of a single clause with a subject and a predicate, e.g. Il a bu de
l’eau (He drank some water), which may be modi ed by additional elements such as
adverbs and prepositional phrases: Après la course il a bu de l’eau à grands traits
(After the race he drank some water thirstily).
Compound, i.e., consist of two or more clauses: a main clause and one or more
subordinate clauses. Typically, clauses are joined by conjunctions like parce que : Il a
bu de l’eau [main clause], parce qu’il avait soif [subordinate clause] (He drank some
water because he was thirsty). Relative pronouns are frequently used to join two
clauses: Les gens qui habitaient la vieille maison ne sortaient guère (The people who lived in
the old house scarcely went out).
The most important word in a sentence is normally the verb. Other components are
nouns, determiners, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns and prepositions. Typical
complements of the verb may be a direct object, an indirect object or a prepositional
phrase.
Sentences may be af rmative or negative. They can take the form of questions and
commands: Qu’est-ce que tu fais là ? Sors ! (What are you doing here? Get out!)
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
xxi
Subject The subject is the word or group of words which determines the verb ending,
e.g. in Les gosses jouaient dans la rue (The kids were playing in the street), the subject
Les gosses is plural so the verb is in the plural. In active sentences the subject usually
carries out the action of the verb: Gérard a construit le mur (Gérard built the wall). In
passive sentences the subject receives the action of the verb: Le mur a été construit par
Gérard (The wall was built by Gérard).
Subjunctive mood See Mood
Subordinate clause See Clause
Superlative The superlative is an adjective or adverb used when we are referring to a
quality in its greatest possible degree, e.g. la femme la plus âgée du monde (the oldest
woman in the world).
Tense Tense refers to the time when an action took place, whether present, future or
past. As in English, tenses in French can be simple, i.e., consist of one word, e.g. Je
sais (I know) or compound, i.e., consist of more than one word, e.g. Je suis venu (I
have come).
the simple tenses are: Present, Future, Conditional, Simple past and Imperfect, e.g. the
Present: Je sais (I know); the Imperfect: Je savais (I knew).
Compound tenses consist of an auxiliary verb, either avoir or être plus a participle e.g.
the Compound past: Elle a commencé son travail (She’s started her job); the Pluperfect:
Maurice était arrivé (Maurice had arrived).
Transitive and intransitive verbs A verb is called transitive when it has a direct object, as
does the verb voir in Tu vois cette peinture ? (Do you see that painting?). An
intransitive verb is one that does not have a direct object, as in Il dort. (He’s sleeping)
Verb See Sentence
Voice See Active and passive voice
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1
1 NOUNS
Nouns are words that we use to label living beings, things, feelings, ideas or actions:
Charles, enfant, chien, livre, poubelle, amour, économie, construction
KEY POINTS
All nouns in French, without exception, are either masculine or feminine in gender:
lion (m), lionne (f), bâtiment (m), maison (f)
In some cases nouns may be of either gender:
un / une élève, un / une enfant, un / une artiste
Nouns are either singular or plural; the plural is usually indicated by a change in the
ending of the word:
lion (sing.) lions (pl.)
lionne (sing.) lionnes (pl.)
Nouns decide the gender and number of any determiners that precede them, such as
mon, les, la:
Mon frère aîné a peint les murs de la
cuisine.
My older brother painted the kitchen walls.
Nouns determine whether a following verb is singular or plural:
Mon frère aîné a peint les murs de la cuisine;
mes sœurs cadettes ont peint le plafond.
My older brother painted the kitchen walls;
my younger sisters painted the ceiling.
When a noun is accompanied by determiners and adjectives a noun phrase is formed:
le petit cheval blanc the little white horse
All nouns are either proper nouns or common nouns
Nouns can be categorized in different types. These are:
1 Concrete and abstract nouns
2 ‘Count’ and ‘mass’ nouns
3 Collective nouns
4 Simple nouns and compound nouns
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
2
Proper nouns and common nouns
Proper nouns
Proper nouns designate things or beings that are unique, such as a speci c person,
country, town or place. They always begin with a capital letter, as in English: Marie-
France, Louis XIV, Marseille, l’Angleterre, Eurodisney.
Some proper nouns are preceded by the de nite article:
la Bretagne
l’Amérique
le Mont-Blanc
la Nouvelle-Zélande
la Seine
la Terre
Brittany
America
Mont Blanc
New Zealand
the Seine
the Earth
Common nouns
All other nouns are common nouns: they designate things or beings that are not unique.
They are usually preceded by a determiner:
le lion; chaque lion; tous les lions; une élève; cette élève
Note
Some proper nouns can become common nouns, in which case they may be preceded by
the inde nite article:
1 un bottin is a telephone directory that derives from the name of its founder, Sébastien
Bottin.
2 un camembert is a cheese that comes from the village of Camembert, in Normandy.
3 un lycée is named after the Lycée (Lyceum) in Ancient Greece, where Aristotle taught.
and vice versa, some common nouns can become proper nouns:
1 Le Débarquement, from the word for ‘disembarkation’, refers to the Normandy landings
in 1944.
2 La Libération, referring to the Liberation of Paris in 1944, derives from the common
noun meaning ‘freeing, release’.
3 La Révolution française is a particular revolution that began in 1789.
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1.1 Types of nouns
While all nouns are either common or proper, various types of noun can be
distinguished. The main ones are:
1.1.1 Concrete nouns and abstract nouns
Concrete nouns are nouns that have physical existence (i.e., you can see or touch them).
Abstract nouns are nouns that do not have a physical existence (i.e., you cannot see or
touch them).
Concrete nouns Abstract nouns
livre book bonheur happiness
maison house connaissances knowledge
ordinateur computer joie joy
vache cow tristesse sadness
In general, all common nouns in French, including abstract nouns, are accompanied by
the de nite article.
Tout le monde cherche le bonheur. Everyone looks for happiness.
En vieillissant, la mémoire diminue. Memory deteriorates as we grow older.
But when the abstract noun has a complement, a de nite article is also used in English:
Le design des meubles suit les modes. The design of furniture follows fashion.
1.1.2 ‘Count’ nouns and ‘mass’ nouns
In the following sentences:
Virginie avait plus de pommes que Jean-Charles. Virginie had more apples than Jean-Charles.
Virginie avait plus de tact que Jean-Charles. Virginie had more tact than Jean-Charles.
The noun pommes can be counted and is in the plural. This type of noun is called
‘countable’ or ‘count’ and can be used either in the singular or the plural.
The noun ‘tact’, on the other hand, designates an entity that cannot be counted (you
cannot have *two ‘tacts’), and is in the singular. This type of noun is called ‘non-
countable’ or ‘mass’, and does not usually have a plural form.
Mass nouns frequently designate substances: bois (wood), café (coffee), lait (milk), sel
(salt). These nouns may be used in the plural but in this case their meaning changes: trois
cafés = three cups of coffee, or three different types of coffee.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
4
Mass nouns cannot be preceded by the inde nite article or a number. They are preceded
by other determiners such as the partitive article (see 2.5) du / de la, des, and expressions
like un peu de and plus / moins de. You can say:
J’ai ajouté du sel / plus de sel / deux pincées de
sel dans la soupe.
I’ve added some / more / two pinches of salt
to the soup.
but NOT
*J’ai ajouté deux sels dans la soupe. *I’ve added two salts to the soup.
1.1.3 Collective nouns
Collective nouns refer to groups of people, animals or things:
le bétail cattle
l’équipe team
le mobilier furniture
la police the police
une douzaine a dozen
la majorité the majority
la plupart most
These nouns are followed by a verb in the singular, unlike in English where they are
often followed by the plural.
La police était sur les lieux, elle a tout vu. The police were on the spot; they saw it all.
Le bétail ne transmet la èvre aphtheuse que
pendant une brève durée.
Cattle only transmit foot and mouth disease
for a short time.
Note
When a collective noun is followed by a complement in the plural it may be followed by
the singular or the plural, depending on the focus of the speaker.
Un groupe de chômeurs plutôt réduit s’est
presenté.
A rather small group of unemployed workers
appeared.
Here the verb is in the singular. For the speaker, what matters is the idea of the group as
a whole.
Un groupe de chômeurs bien indemnisés sont
entrés dans la pièce.
A group of well-compensated unemployed
workers entered the room.
Here the verb is in the plural. For the speaker it is the workers as individuals that matter
and not the group.
The meaning or the intention of the speaker is therefore the prime factor in determining
whether a singular or a plural verb is used. If the action is collective, a singular verb is
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5
used; if the speaker wants to focus on the action carried out by the members of the
group, the plural is used.
1.1.4 Simple nouns and compound nouns
Nouns are either simple or compound:
Simple nouns consist of one word: arbre (tree), agriculteur (farmer), engrais (fertiliser)
Compound nouns may be written as:
one word
gentilhomme ( = gentil + homme) (archaic) gentleman
passeport (= passe + port) passport
two words that are juxtaposed
État membre Member state
cas limite borderline case
two words separated by a hyphen
sourd-muet deaf mute
après-midi afternoon
two words linked by a preposition, which may be hyphenated
pomme de terre potato
brosse à dents toothbrush
arc-en-ciel rainbow
tête-à-tête tête-à-tête
1.1.5 Gens
The word gens is a mass noun which is found only in the plural form. You cannot say
*trois gens or *quelques gens; in these cases personnes has to be used instead: trois
personnes, quelques personnes.
Gens has to be used when referring to people collectively:
Aujourd’hui les gens ne croient plus à rien. People don’t believe in anything these days.
Gens may be preceded by beaucoup / peu de, tous les … , tant de, la majorité des … and
certaines …
Il y avait tant de gens qu’on ne pouvait pas
respirer.
There were so many people that you couldn’t
breathe.
Peu de gens visitent le monument. Few people visit the monument.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
6
1.1.6 Acronyms and abbreviations
Acronyms
There are two kinds of acronyms:
words consisting of the rst letter of each of several words. These acronyms (known
as acronymes or sigles in French) are written in capital letters, each one followed by a
full stop. The letters are pronounced separately.
H.L.M. (habitation à loyer modéré) (council housing estate)
S.N.C.F. (Société nationale des chemins de fer
français)
(French railway company)
Words that are pronounced like ordinary words. These acronyms do not have full
stops.
OTAN or Otan (Organisation du traité de
l’Atlantique Nord)
NATO
Ovni (objet volant non identi é) UFO
Sida (syndrome d’immunodé cience acquise) Aids (or AIDS)
Abbreviations
An abbreviation is the shortened part of a word: M
me
= Madame
The following rules apply:
If the abbreviation does not include the nal letter of the word, it nishes with a full
stop:
Réf.= référence
M.= Monsieur
hab.= habitant
dép. = département
env. = environ
etc. = et cetera
adj. = adjectif
fém. = féminin
masc. = masculin
If the abbreviation includes the last letter of the word, there is no full stop:
Dr = Docteur en médecine,
bd = boulevard
ave = avenue
n
o
= numéro
Abbreviations relating to measurements do not end in a full stop, even if they do not
include the nal letter:
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7
min = minute(s)
V = volt(s)
kg = kilogramme(s)
km / h = kilomètre(s) par heure
A = ampère(s)
1.1.7 Shortened words
As in English, some long words are commonly used in a shortened form because of their
frequency. There are two ways of shortening a word:
the end of the word is cut off:
vélo (vélocipède) bike
photo (photographie) photo
métro (métropolitain) metro, underground
auto (automobile) car
ado (adolescent) adolescent (informal)
the beginning of the word is cut off:
car (autocar) coach
bus (omnibus) bus
chandail (This word has its origin in a special
jumper worn by a marchand d’ail)
sweater
1.2 Gender
It is not always possible to predict the gender of a given noun and so students should get
into the habit of learning the noun together with its article: for example, un timbre (a
postage stamp) and une forêt (a forest), rather than timbre and forêt. Helpful guidelines
exist for predicting the gender of groups of nouns, as explained in this section, but there
are often exceptions to the rule.
Nouns may be classi ed in two broad groups: those referring to the gender of animate
beings, and those referring to inanimate objects.
1.2.1 Gender of animate beings
Generally nouns that refer to human beings are masculine or feminine according to
their sex:
un homme man
un ls son
le père father
une femme woman
une lle girl, daughter
la mère mother
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
8
Likewise the gender of some nouns that refer to animals is predictable:
un étalon stallion
une jument mare
but most animals are either masculine or feminine without reference to their sex: for
example, une souris (mouse) and une baleine (whale) have no separate masculine form; un
chimpanzé (chimpanzee), un crocodile (crocodile) have no separate feminine form. If you
want to refer to the other sex you have to say une souris mâle, un chimpanzé femelle.
As a rule the names of species of animals are masculine:
un mammifère mammal
un poisson s h
un oiseau bird
un dinosaur dinosaur
l’homme man
The young of animals are also usually masculine:
un chien dog une chienne bitch un chiot puppy
un chat chat une chatte female cat un chaton kitten
une carpe carp un carpeau young carp
but in some cases there are separate forms for masculine and feminine young:
un aigle eagle un aiglon eaglet une aiglonne eaglet
un cheval horse un poulain foal une pouliche lly
une vache cow un veau calf une génisse heifer
A few nouns are of either masculine or feminine gender only, but may refer to men or
women.
une personne person
un témoin witness
une star star (in the sense of a pop star)
une victime victim
Paul était un témoin exceptionnel. Paul was an exceptional witness.
Alain Souchon est une star encore appréciée en
France aujourd’hui.
Alain Souchon is a star still liked in France
today.
Some nouns can be either masculine or feminine depending on whether they refer to
the male or female sex.
un enfant, une enfant child
un élève, une élève pupil
un collègue, une collègue colleague
un secrétaire, une secrétaire secretary
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9
un fonctionnaire, une fonctionnaire civil servant
un journaliste, une journaliste journalist
1.2.2 Gender of inanimate nouns
The gender of inanimate nouns is arbitrary:
un toit roof but une toiture roo ng
le théâtre theatre but la poésie poetry
le cinéma cinema but la littérature literature
le pied foot but la main hand
le bras arm but la jambe leg
le genou knee but la cheville ankle
It is possible however to detect a certain logic in some cases: with objects that are related
conceptually the bigger one is masculine, the smaller feminine.
un camion lorry une voiture car
un bateau boat, ship une barque small boat
un portail gate une porte door
But
un vélo bike une bicyclette bicycle une moto(cyclette) motorbike
1.2.3 Gender of products and means of transport
A useful way of remembering the gender of a product or a means of transport which
derives from a noun is that it takes the gender of the ‘group’ noun it is identi ed with.
Product/means of transport Origin
Wines
un bordeaux un vin (wine) Bordeaux a city
un bourgogne un vin la Bourgogne a region
un champagne un vin la Champagne a region
Cheeses
un camembert un fromage (cheese) Camembert a village in
Normandy
un brie un fromage la Brie a region
un chèvre un fromage une chèvre a she-goat
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
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Product/means of transport Origin
un hollande un fromage la Hollande a country
Means of transport
une Renault une voiture (car) Renault a car manufacturer
un Renault un camion / un autobus
(lorry / bus)
Renault a car manufacturer
le Concorde un avion (aeroplane) la concorde an abstract concept
le Titanic un bateau (boat) les Titans Greek mythology
Other terms
un canon un appareil photos
(camera)
Canon a company
un MacIntosh un ordinateur
(computer)
une MacIntosh a type of apple
une kanterbräu une bière (beer) Kanterbräu a brasserie near Paris
un chine un papier de luxe
(paper)
la Chine a country
1.2.4 Recognition of masculine gender by the endings of words
Nouns ending in the following letters are masculine:
Masculine endings Main exceptions
-ail, -eil, -ueil, -l, -al :
travail work
portail gate
soleil sun
réveil wakening
accueil welcome
cheval horse
journal newspaper
appel call
sol ground
-age :
personnage character
garage garage
fromage cheese
cage cage
plage beach
image image
nage swimming
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11
Masculine endings Main exceptions
-c :
trac stage fright
tra c traf c
parc park
sac bag
viaduc viaduct
fac (short for ‘faculté’) faculty (university)
-d, -ard :
canard duck
renard fox
retard delay
bord edge
-ège
cortège procession
siège seat, siege
Norvège Norway
-er, -ier
boucher butcher
danger danger
oranger orange tree
saladier salad bowl
couturier couturier
guier g tree
-eur :
voyageur traveller
serveur waiter
aviateur aviator
concepteur designer
-f :
poncif commonplace
nef nave
soif thirst
-g :
blog blog
grog toddy
tag tag
-i :
suivi monitoring fourmi ant
-isme
fatalisme fatalism
sophisme sophisme
charisme charisma
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
12
Masculine endings Main exceptions
-ment :
argument argument
développement development
ciment cement
-eau
bureau desk, of ce
château castle
eau water
peau skin
-oi :
émoi commotion
roi king
emploi job
foi faith
loi law
paroi partition
-oir :
comptoir counter
désespoir despair
miroir mirror
rasoir razor
soir evening
-on :
salon sitting-room
saucisson sausage
cornichon gherkin
rayon ray, shelf
sermon sermon
soupçon suspicion
leçon lesson
façon way
prison prison
-t :
sabot clog
habitat habitat
chocolat chocolate
poulet chicken
forêt forest
nuit night
dent tooth
part share
plupart most
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1.2.5 Masculine gender according to the meaning of the noun
Days of the week, months and seasons
le lundi Monday
le mardi Tuesday
avril* April
juillet* July
le printemps spring
un hiver a / one winter
* months are only used with the de nite article when there is a complement:
Le janvier de l’année dernière était plus doux. January last year was milder.
Metals
le fer iron
le plomb lead
l’or gold
le zinc zinc
Trees and shrubs
un pommier apple tree
un oranger orange tree
un olivier olive tree
un citronnier lemon tree
le chêne chestnut tree
le hêtre beech tree
le saule willow tree
Exceptions
l’aubépine hawthorn
la vigne vine
la ronce bramble
Note
Tree plantations are feminine
une chênaie oak grove
une oliveraie or olivette olive grove
une orangeraie orangery
Numbers
un million million
un milliard billion
le un number one
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
14
le sept number seven
le mille thousand
Measurements
un centimètre centimetre
un litre litre
un hectare hectare
un ampère ampere
un volt volt
un ohm ohm
un joule joule
un micron micron
un nanomètre nanometre
But
une année-lumière light year
Note
Imperial weights and measures can be of either gender:
une once ounce
un pied foot
une livre pound
un pouce inch
une lieue league
un mile mile
Languages
le japonais Japanese
le turc Turkish
le russe Russian
le grec Greek
Paintings
un Rembrandt a Rembrandt
un Picasso a Picasso
Cheeses (see also 1.2.3)
Cheeses are masculine but when referring to the shape of a cheese or to cooking,
feminine words can be found.
une fourme a blue-veined French cheese, cylinder-shaped
une brique a brick-shaped cheese
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une tomme shaped like a thick disk: la tomme de Savoie
une rigotte a small at cylinder-shaped cheese
Colours
Le Rouge et le noir The Red and the Black (title of a novel by
Stendhal)
le jaune yellow
Points of the compass
le nord north
le sud south
l’est east
l’ouest west
Letters of the alphabet
Un a an ‘a’
Afrique ne prend qu’un seul f Africa has only one ‘f’
l’alpha et l’oméga alpha and omega
Nouns designating an activity which is derived from an in nitive
le boire et le manger eating and drinking
le déjeuner lunch
le pouvoir power
le devoir homework
le savoir learning, knowledge
un être being
un avoir asset
les dires statements
1.2.6 Recognition of feminine gender by the endings of words
Nouns ending in the following letters are feminine:
Feminine endings Exceptions
-ade :
limonade lemonade
salade salad
une camarade female friend
jade jade
grade rank
stade stadium
un camarade male friend
-aille, -eille, -ueille, -ouille :
médaille medal
abeille bee
bouteille bottle
grenouille frog
Braille Braille
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
16
Feminine endings Exceptions
-ison :
saison season
maison house
raison reason
trahison betrayal
poison poison
vison mink
tison brand
oison gosling
-ance, -anse, -ense :
circonstance circumstance
concordance agreement
défense defence
danse dance
-ce :
espace space (printing)
hélice propeller
audace daring
espace space
palace palace
exercice exercise
béné ce pro t, bene t
service service
commerce commerce
of ce duty, of ce
dentifrice toothpaste
-ence :
patience patience
absence absence
présence presence
silence silence
-ette :
pipette pipette
tablette bar
burette burette
squelette skeleton
-eur : (abstract nouns)
douceur sweetness
rancœur resentment
pâleur pallor
odeur smell
bonheur happiness
malheur misfortune
honneur honour
-ie :
penderie wardrobe
anomalie anomaly
allergie allergy
incendie r e
génie genius
foie liver
parapluie umbrella
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Feminine endings Exceptions
-ière
salière salt cellar
chaumière thatched cottage
fermière woman farmer
épicière woman grocer
arrière rear
derrière bottom
cimetière cemetery
-ine
chaîne chain
aubaine windfall
popeline poplin
marine navy
domaine estate
capitaine captain
ciné cinema
pipeline pipeline
patrimoine patrimony
magazine magazine
-ion
religion religion
passion passion
ssion ssion
fusion fusion
ion ion
million million
billion billion
camion lorry
scorpion scorpion
espion spy
avion aeroplane
-ite :
(names of in ammatory illnesses)
otite otitis
péritonite peritonitis
méningite meningitis
marmite saucepan
gîte self-catering home
graphite graphite
satellite satellite
granite granite
rite rite
mérite merit
site site
-oire :
passoire sieve
armoire cupboard, wardrobe
territoire territory
laboratoire laboratory
conservatoire conservatory
interrogatoire cross-examination
pourboire tip
accessoire accessory
observatoire observatory
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
18
Feminine endings Exceptions
-ose, -oise, -ouse, -use, -euse, -ise :
osmose osmosis
blouse overall
excuse excuse
ardoise slate
franchise frankness, franchise
entreprise company
perceuse drill
marchandise merchandise
expertise expertise
-té :
société society, business
identité identity
communauté community
absurdité absurdity
charité charity
acidité acidity
été summer
comité committee
comté county
député MP
côté side
traité treaty
pâté pâté
-tion :
nation nation
option option
question question
bastion bastion
-ure :
usure usury
lasure stain
texture texture
mercure mercury
sulfure sulphur
murmure murmur
parjure betrayal
augure omen
1.2.7 Feminine gender according to the meaning of the noun (see
also 1.2.3)
Sciences, school and university subjects, arts, areas of knowledge
la géographie geography
la chimie chemistry
la physique physics
la psychologie psychology
l’informatique computer science
la peinture painting
l’architecture architecture
NOUNS
NOUNS
19
1.2.8 Feminine nouns which are derived from masculine ones
The usual way of forming feminine nouns is by adding -e to the masculine:
un Anglais Englishman une Anglaise Englishwoman
un savant wise man une savante wise woman
un étudiant male student une étudiante female student
un voisin male neighbour une voisine female neighbour
Masculine nouns that end in -e have the same form in the feminine:
un camarade (male) friend une camarade (female) friend
un élève (male) pupil une élève (female) pupil
un secrétaire (male) secretary une secrétaire (female) secretary
Exceptions
A number of masculine nouns ending in -e have their feminine in -esse:
un maître master une maîtresse mistress
un tigre tiger une tigresse tigress
un prince prince une princesse princess
un comte count une comtesse countess
un âne ass une ânesse she-ass
Masculine nouns ending in -er and -ier have their feminine in -ère and -ière:
le boulanger (male) baker la boulangère (female) baker
le boutiquier (male) shopkeeper la boutiquière (female) shopkeeper
Masculine nouns ending in -eur have their feminine in -euse:
un vendeur – une vendeuse salesman / -woman
un tricheur – une tricheuse cheat
Masculine nouns ending in -teur have their feminine in -trice or -teuse:
un spectateur – une spectatrice spectator
un rédacteur – une rédactrice editor
un directeur – une directrice director
un admirateur – une admiratrice admirer
un collaborateur – une collaboratrice collaborator
un aviateur – une aviatrice aviator
un tuteur – une tutrice tutor
un chanteur – une chanteuse singer
un acheteur – une acheteuse buyer
un conteur – une conteuse storyteller
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
20
Exception
un docteur – une doctoresse
(or une femme médecin)
doctor
Masculine nouns which double the nal consonant to make the feminine:
un Colombien – une Colombienne Colombian
un Bourguignon – une Bourguignonne Burgundian
un Européen – une Européenne European
un criminel – une criminelle criminal
un cadet – une cadette younger / youngest child
But nouns ending in -an and -in do not double the nal consonant:
un faisan – une faisane pheasant
un orphelin – une orpheline orphan
Exception
un paysan – une paysanne peasant
Masculine nouns ending in -at and -ot do not double the t:
un candidat – une candidate candidate
un scélérat – une scélérate villain
un Hottentot – une Hottentote Hottentot
un huguenot – une huguenote Huguenot
Exceptions
un chat – une chatte cat
un sot – une sotte fool
Masculine nouns ending in -if have their feminine -ive:
un sportif – une sportive sportsman / -woman
un natif – une native native
Masculine nouns ending in -eux or -oux have their feminine in -euse or -ouse:
un chanceux – une chanceuse a lucky person
un époux – une épouse husband – wife
1.2.9 Irregular feminine nouns
un loup – une louve wolf
un agneau – une agnelle lamb
un héros – une héroïne hero / heroine
NOUNS
NOUNS
21
1.2.10 Animate nouns which have separate forms for the male and
the female
le père – la mère father – mother
le ls – la lle son – daughter
le parrain – la marraine godfather – godmother
le mari – la femme husband – wife
l’homme – la femme man – woman
l’étalon – la jument stallion – mare
le taureau – la vache bull – cow
le frère – la sœur brother – sister
l’oncle – la tante uncle – aunt
un monsieur – une dame gentleman – lady
un coq – une poule cock – hen
un bélier – une brebis ram – ewe
un neveu – une nièce nephew – niece
un copain – une copine (boy)friend – (girl)friend
un duc – une duchesse duke – duchess
un roi – une reine king – queen
1.2.11 The names of professions
Traditionally, most professions in France have not had feminine forms but recent
changes in social attitudes have led to new feminine forms being created. These forms are
gradually becoming accepted, despite some disagreement among linguists.
Note
la ministre (minister), as an alternative to Madame le Ministre
la juge (judge), as an alternative to Madame le Juge
un médecin (doctor). For a woman doctor, une femme médecin or un médecin is used
(médecine refers to the science of medicine)
un écrivain (writer); une écrivaine is in common use
un auteur (author); une auteure is used in Quebec only
In Quebec, by contrast with France, the use of feminine titles is very widespread,
accepted and often compulsory. There are uses that appear only rarely in France, such as
la docteure (woman doctor), even though the feminine of docteur, doctoresse, already exists,
la médecin, la gouverneure (woman governor), la ministre (female minister), la première
ministre (woman prime minister), la mairesse (or la maire) (mayoress), etc.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
22
1.2.12 Nouns which change their meaning
according to their gender
Masculine Feminine
un aigle eagle une aigle eagle (military insignia, e.g. les aigles
romaines Roman eagles)
un crêpe crepe une crêpe pancake
un geste gesture la geste gest(e) (epic exploits, as in chanson
de geste)
un critique critic une critique criticism
un gîte shelter, self-catering cottage la gîte bed (nautical term)
un greffe Of ce of Clerk of Court une greffe graft, transplant
un livre book une livre pound in money and weight
(approx. ½ kilo)
un manche handle une manche sleeve; La Manche English
Channel
un manœuvre unskilled worker une manœuvre manœuvre
un mémoire dissertation, memo la mémoire memory
un mode mode une mode fashion
un moule mould une moule mussel
un mousse ship’s apprentice une mousse moss, foam
un page page boy une page page (of book)
un parallèle parallel (Geog., e.g. of latitude) une parallèle a parallel line
un pendule pendulum une pendule clock
le physique physical appearance la physique physics
un poste position la poste post of ce
un solde credit /debit balance une solde pay
le pourpre crimson la pourpre purple
un tour turn, round, revolution (le Tour de
France – annual cycle race)
une tour tower e.g. la Tour Eiffel
un vase vase la vase sludge
un voile veil une voile sail
NOUNS
NOUNS
23
Notes
un hymne (hymn) is masculine when it designates a song glorifying a hero or a people,
and either masculine or feminine when it designates a religious chant / song.
Pâque (Passover) without -s, designating the Jewish festival, is feminine: la Pâque juive.
Pâques (Easter) with -s, designating the Christian festival, is masculine singular but it is
always feminine when plural.
Quand Pâques sera venu … When Easter comes…
Joyeuses Pâques ! Happy Easter!
personne (person) is feminine when it designates an individual: C’est une personne
intelligente. (S/he’s an intelligent person), and masculine when it is an inde nite pronoun
meaning ‘no one’:
Personne n’est venu.
No one has come.
1.2.13 Nouns of variable gender: amour, délice and orgue
These words are masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural:
le parfait amour perfect love les premières amours rst love
un vrai délice a real delight les vraies délices (literary) true delight(s)
un petit orgue a small organ les grandes orgues the great organ
1.2.14 Plural of gens
Adjectives following the noun gens (people) are masculine plural:
des gens intelligents intelligent people
Adjectives preceding the noun are feminine plural:
toutes ces vieilles gens all these old people
Note
When the adjective has the same form in the masculine and the feminine (e.g. brave), the
adjective is in the masculine:
tous ces braves gens all these good people
1.2.15 Countries, regions, towns
Countries and regions
The names of countries and provinces which do not end in -ie or -e are masculine:
L’Iran, le Vietnam, le Japon, le Sri Lanka, le Sénégal, le Congo, le Vénézuéla, le Canada, le Québec
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
24
The names of countries and provinces which end in -ie or -e are feminine. They are the
majority:
L’Allemagne, la Suisse, la Turquie, la Colombie, la Chine
Exceptions
le Cambodge, le Mexique, le Zaïre, le Maine, le Mozambique
Towns
The proper names of towns are in principle masculine, but this is far from being a
general rule. Sometimes the same town even has two genders.
Marseille est beau. Marseilles is beautiful.
la Rome antique Ancient Rome
le Rome des années 70 Rome of the 70s
The last syllable of the name can sometimes help to identify gender. If the last vowel of
the word is silent [ǝ], as in the English word ‘college’, the town will usually be feminine.
la Florence des Médicis the Florence of the Medicis
Bruxelles, ma belle my beautiful Brussels (song)
Salamanque est une vieille ville espagnole. Salamanca is an old Spanish town.
Exception
le vieux Londres old London
If the last syllable of the name is ‘sounded’, the town is usually masculine.
Alger est parfumé le soir et Paris est mystérieux
la nuit.
Algiers is scented in the evening and Paris is
mysterious by night.
Towns which already have an article as part of their names keep the gender of the article:
Roche-la-Molière, La Ciotat, Le Caire, Le Puy-en-Velay, La Haye, La Rochelle, Le Mans
The gender of towns with adjectives or common nouns as part of their name is more
easily identi able:
Louvain-la-Neuve, Vieux-Condé, La Grande Motte, Port-Leucate, Port Bou, La Nouvelle-Orléans
Towns which are, or include, the names of saints have the gender of the saint in
question:
Saint Etienne, Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, Sainte Ségolène, Saint Joseph
However, in literary language, you often nd that names of towns are feminine. Le Bon
usage (Grévisse, Duculot, Paris 1980) gives numerous examples (p. 267): Strasbourg
blessée (wounded Strasbourg) (Fr. Ambrière, Les Grandes vacances, p. 376), whether they
end with a silent or a voiced syllable.
There is a good deal of uncertainty in this area. The best way to get round the dif culty
of gender is to say la ville de Madrid, la ville de Marseille (the town of …) etc.
NOUNS
NOUNS
25
1.2.16 Compound nouns
In general, compound nouns are masculine.
There are rules which help to identify the gender of a compound noun.
If the compound noun is composed of two nouns it takes the gender of the rst noun:
un chou- eur cauli ower
une station-service petrol station
un timbre-poste postage stamp
une pause-café coffee break
un appui-tête head-rest
un soutien-gorge bra
un portrait-robot identikit picture
un drap-housse tted sheet
If the compound noun is composed of two feminine nouns it is usually feminine:
une porte-fenêtre French window
une moissonneuse-batteuse combine harvester
If the rst component is a verb the noun is usually masculine:
un chasse-neige snowplough
un brise-glace icebreaker
un allume-cigare cigar lighter
un coupe-vent windbreak
un essuie-tout paper towel
un garde-boue mudguard
un croque-madame ham and cheese sandwich with a fried egg
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
26
un tire-bouchon corkscrew
un coupe-faim appetite suppressant
un rendez-vous appointment, date
But
une garde-robe wardrobe (masculine in Canadian French)
If the rst component is an adverb, an adjective or a preposition, the compound noun
usually takes the gender of the second component:
un avant-bras forearm
une arrière-garde rearguard
un sous-sol basement
une sous-tasse saucer
un haut-parleur loudspeaker
un beau-père father-in-law
une grand-tante great-aunt
une plate-bande ower bed
un avant-poste outpost
une demi- nale semi- nal
un demi-dieu demigod
But
un (four) micro-onde microwave (oven)
un en-tête heading
un après-guerre post-war years
un rouge-gorge robin
un or une après-midi (masculine or feminine) an afternoon
If the rst component is mi-, the noun is usually feminine:
la mi-décembre mid-December
une mi-temps half-time (sport)
But
un mi-temps part-time (at work)
If the compound noun is composed of foreign words (English, German, etc.), the word
is usually masculine:
le hand-ball (or le handball) handball
un attaché-case attaché case
un week-end weekend
But
in the case of a man or a woman, the gender of his / her sex prevails:
une cover-girl; une pin-up; un cow-boy; un businessman
NOUNS
NOUNS
27
If the compound noun is composed of two verbs or a phrase, its gender is masculine:
un va-et-vient two-way switch; comings and goings
un laissez-passer pass
un sot-l’y-laisse oyster (poultry)
1.3 Number
The plural of most nouns is formed as in English, by adding ‘s’ to the singular:
un jour – des jours day(s)
une semaine – des semaines week(s)
Note
French differs from English in that the nal ‘s’ is not pronounced; singular and plural
sound the same.
The plural applies when the noun denotes two or more things:
deux mètres two metres
But
1,9 mètre 1.9 metres
1.3.1 Nouns ending in -s, -z and -x
These nouns are the same in the singular and the plural:
un bus des bus bus(es)
une noix des noix nut(s)
un nez des nez nose(s)
1.3.2 Nouns ending in -au, -eau, -eu, -œu
These nouns add -x to form their plural:
un anneau des anneaux ring(s)
un jeu des jeux game(s)
un tuyau des tuyaux pipe(s)
un vœu des vœux vow(s)
Exceptions
un bleu des bleus blue colour(s); bruise(s)
un émeu des émeus emu(s)
un landau des landaus pram(s)
un pneu des pneus tyre(s)
Note: Les Bleus also is the popular name given to French national teams in a number of
sports, especially football and rugby.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
28
1.3.3 Nouns ending in -ou
In general these nouns form their plural with -s:
un clou des clous nail(s)
un coucou des coucous cuckoo(s)
Exceptions
The following seven nouns form their plural in -oux:
un bijou des bijoux jewel(s)
un caillou des cailloux stone(s)
un chou des choux cabbage(s)
un genou des genoux knee(s)
un hibou des hiboux owl(s)
un joujou des joujoux toy(s)
un pou des poux louse / lice
1.3.4 Nouns ending in -al
These nouns form their plural -aux:
un journal des journaux newspaper(s)
un cheval des chevaux horse(s)
un terminal d’ordinateur des terminaux d’ordinateur computer terminal(s)
Exceptions
The following nouns ending in -al form their plural in -s:
un bal des bals dance(s), ball(s)
un cal des cals callus(es)
un carnaval des carnavals carnival(s)
un cérémonial des cérémonials ceremonial(s)
un chacal des chacals jackal(s)
un étal des étals (market) stall(s)
un festival des festivals festival(s)
un récital des récitals recital(s)
un régal des régals delight(s)
Note
un idéal des idéaux or des idéals ideal(s)
1.3.5 Nouns ending -ail
Most of these nouns form their plural in -ails:
un chandail des chandails sweater(s)
un détail des détails detail(s)
un épouvantail des épouvantails scarecrow(s)
NOUNS
NOUNS
29
Exceptions
A number of nouns ending in -ail form their plural in -aux. The seven most common of
these nouns are:
un bail des baux lease(s)
un corail des coraux coral(s)
un émail des émaux enamel(s)
un soupirail des soupiraux (cellar) window(s)
un travail des travaux work(s)
un vantail des vantaux (cupboard) door(s)
un vitrail des vitraux stained-glass window(s)
Notes
le bétail (livestock) is a mass noun and so has no plural form.
l’ail (garlic) has two plural forms: aulx and ails (when referring to the botanic family)
1.3.6 Nouns with two plural forms: ciel, œil, aïeul
un ciel des ciels / des cieux sky(ies), heaven(s)
Des ciels is the ‘true’ plural form. It is used especially for pictorial representation of the
sky or for climate:
Les ciels de Van Gogh ont des couleurs plus vives que ceux de Monet. Van Gogh’s skies have
brighter colours than Monet’s.
Des ciels chargés de nuages menaçants. Skies full of threatening clouds.
Des cieux is literary or religious. Its meaning is synonymous with the singular form.
Laissez venir à moi les petits enfants car le Royaume des cieux est à ceux qui leur ressemblent. Let
the little children come to me because the kingdom of heaven belongs to such as these.
un aïeul des aïeuls grandfather / grandparent(s)
Notes
Bisaïeul/e (great-grandfather/mother) and trisaïeul/e (great-great-grandfather/mother) form
their plural by adding ‘s’: bisaïeuls, trisaïeuls.
Aïeux means ‘ancestors’ and has no singular form in this meaning.
Un de ses aïeux était viking. One of her ancestors was a Viking.
un œil
The plural of un œil (eye) is des yeux.
Il a les yeux bleus. He has blue eyes.
The plural des œils exists but only in compound nouns: des œils-de-bœuf (bull’s eyes).
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
30
1.3.7 Abbreviations, acronyms and symbols
Abbreviations do not take ‘s’ in the plural except in a few cases:
un village de 1000 hab. (habitants) a village of 1000 inhabitants
un livre de 250 p. (250 pages) a book of 250 pages
Exceptions
Mmes
(mesdames) plural of ‘madam’, ‘Mrs’
n
os
(numéros) plural of ‘number’
Drs (docteurs) doctors
éts (établissements) establishments
If the abbreviation consists only of the rst letter, that letter can be doubled to form
the plural:
MM. (messieurs) plural of ‘monsieur’, ‘Mr’
pp. (pages) plural of ‘pages’
Ordinal numbers:
1
ers
= premiers rst
2
es
= deuxièmes, second(e)s second
3
es
= troisièmes third
abbreviations of symbols do not have a plural form:
des km plural of ‘kilometre’
un immeuble de 30m a 30-metre high building
Acronyms in capital letters do not have a plural form, but if they are written like a
normal noun they do form a plural:
Les A.N.P.E. ont été remplacées par les agences Pôle emploi. The ANPE have been replaced by
the Pôle emploi agencies (job centres).
Il y a des lasers de différentes couleurs. There are lasers of different colours.
Nouns which are shortened words form a plural:
des kilos de riz (kilogrammes) kilos of rice
des dactylos (dactylographes) typists
des autos (automobiles) cars
1.3.8 Nouns not normally used in the plural
Names of disciplines and branches of knowledge in science or the arts:
la politique politics
l’économie economics
l’informatique information science
NOUNS
NOUNS
31
la physique physics
la littérature literature
la sculpture sculpture
Note
These nouns may be used in the plural when quali ed in some way:
les littératures africaines African literatures
les sculptures de Rodin Rodin’s sculptures
Exceptions
les mathématiques mathematics
les sciences humaines human sciences
les sciences naturelles natural sciences
les beaux-arts ne arts
Names of sports
le basket basketball
le foot football
le volley volleyball
1.3.9 Nouns and expressions which have no singular form
Common nouns:
des arrhes (f) deposit
des chips (m) crisps
des environs (m) surroundings
des ançailles (f) engagement
des funérailles (f) funeral
des gens (m or f) people
des gravats (m) rubble
des honoraires (m) fees
des mœurs (f) customs
des préparatifs (m) preparations
des ténèbres (f) darkness
Expressions:
les pertes et pro ts pro t and loss
les dommages et intérêts damages (law)
les Jeux olympiques the Olympics
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
32
1.3.10 Nouns which have a singular form but are used more often
in the plural
les applaudissements (m) applause
les félicitations (f) congratulations
les pourparlers (m) negotiations
les représailles (f) reprisals
les déchets (m) refuse
les déboires (m) problems
les broussailles (f) brush
The names of classi cations of plants and animals:
les liliacées (f) liliaceous plants
les mammifères (m) mammals
les équidés (m) the horse family
A number of geographical names:
les Antilles the West Indies
les Alpes the Alps
1.3.11 Nouns which can have a different meaning in the plural
un ciseau chisel des ciseaux scissors
une lettre letter les lettres humanities, letters
une lunette toilet seat des lunettes glasses
une vacance vacancy des vacances holidays
1.3.12 Words used in both the singular and the plural
Nouns like jumelles (f) (binoculars), guillemets (m) (inverted commas) indicating things
composed of two similar parts, are generally used in the plural, but can be singular
when the two parts are considered as a whole.
Nouns related to clothing which covers the legs are singular but are often used in their
plural form in the spoken language: des shorts (m), des jeans (m).
Nouns designating objects consisting of a number of components are often in the
plural, e.g. escaliers (m) (staircase).
Nouns relating to toilets are generally in the plural (but in the singular in Belgium):
(les) W-C (m), toilettes (f) (toilets).
1.3.13 The plural of compound nouns
In compound nouns only the noun and adjective components have a plural form; verbs,
adverbs and prepositions which form part of compound nouns are invariable (see new
spelling rules, Appendix, pp. 388–9).
NOUNS
NOUNS
33
1.3.14 Noun + noun or adjective + noun
In these two combinations it is usual for both components to become plural:
un bloc-moteur des blocs-moteurs engine block(s)
un chou- eur des choux- eurs cauli ower(s)
un grand-parent des grands-parents grandparent(s)
un rond-point des ronds-points roundabout(s)
un tiroir-caisse des tiroirs-caisses cash drawer(s)
But
un pur-sang des purs-sangs or des pur-sang thoroughbred(s)
Sometimes the components vary, according to the meaning:
If the two components create a noun which has a different identity both
components become plural:
une porte-fenêtre, des portes-fenêtres French window(s) (doors which are at the same
time windows)
If the second component modi es the meaning of the rst one, only the rst noun
becomes plural:
une année-lumière, des années-lumière light year(s) (the distance travelled by light in a
year)
un timbre-poste, des timbres-poste postage stamp(s) (stamps used by the postal service)
Note
The adjectives grand and franc are invariable in the feminine singular: un grand-père
(grandfather), une grand-mère (grandmother), des grands-pères (grandfathers); des grands-
mères (grandmothers).
1.3.15 Noun + adjective, adjective + adjective
In general, both elements become plural:
un coffre-fort des coffres-forts safe(s)
un sourd-muet des sourds-muets deaf-mute(s)
Exception
un terre-plein des terre-pleins terreplein(s), platform(s)
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
34
1.3.16 Noun + preposition + noun
When the second noun modi es the rst one, only the rst noun becomes plural:
un arc-en-ciel des arcs-en-ciel rainbow(s)
un chef-d’œuvre des chefs-d’œuvre masterpiece(s)
When the second noun does not modify the rst one, the two nouns are invariable:
un tête-à-tête des tête-à-tête tête-à-tête(s)
Where the compound noun is not connected by a hyphen or hyphens, in general only
the rst noun becomes plural:
un chemin de fer des chemins de fer railway(s)
une pomme de terre des pommes de terre potato(es)
but the second noun is sometimes found in the plural:
un jaune d’œuf des jaunes d’œufs egg yolk(s)
1.3.17 Compound nouns with the adjectives or adverbs
demi and nu
When placed before a noun or adjective, demi and nu are connected by a hyphen and are
invariable:
une demi- nale des demi- nales semi- nal(s)
une demi-heure des demi-heures half hour(s)
un nu-pieds des nu-pieds ip- op(s)
1.3.18 Verb + noun
The verb is invariable but the noun becomes plural:
un couvre-lit des couvre-lits bedspread(s)
un essuie-glace des essuie-glaces windscreen-wiper(s)
un tire-bouchon des tire-bouchons corkscrew(s)
Note
If the noun is preceded by an article or begins with a capital letter it does not become
plural:
un prie-Dieu des prie-Dieu prie-dieu(s)
un trompe-l’œil des trompe-l’œil trompe-l’œil(s)
NOUNS
NOUNS
35
1.3.19 Verb + verb
The two components are invariable:
un laissez-passer des laissez-passer pass(es)
un savoir-faire des savoir-faire know-how(s)
un va-et-vient des va-et-vient two-way switch(es)
1.3.20 Invariable word + noun
Only the noun becomes plural:
une arrière-boutique des arrière-boutiques back-shop(s)
une avant-garde des avant-gardes vanguard(s)
une en-tête des en-têtes letter-head(s) (on notepaper)
un non-lieu des non-lieux dismissal(s)
1.3.21 Various
Foreign borrowings normally follow the rules for French words. These rules have not
been fully assimilated and so there is some variation (see Appendix notes on Nouvelles
règles orthographiques pp. 388–90).
un post-scriptum des post-scriptum post-script(s)
un orang-outang des orangs-outangs orang-utang(s)
un minimum des minimums or -a minimum(a)
un sandwich des sandwichs or -es sandwich(es)
The truncated rst component of a compound word does not become plural:
un Anglo-saxon des Anglo-saxons Anglo-Saxon(s)
un Gallo-romain des Gallo-romains Gallo-Roman(s)
une tragi-comédie des tragi-comédies tragicomedy(ies)
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
36
Nouns in context
Inventaire
Une pierre
deux maisons
trois ruines
quatre fossoyeurs
un jardin
des fl eurs
un raton laveur
une douzaine d’huîtres un citron un pain
un rayon de soleil
une lame de fond
six musiciens
une porte avec son paillasson
un monsieur décoré de la légion
d’honneur
un autre raton laveur
un sculpteur qui sculpte des Napoléon
la fl eur qu’on appelle souci
deux amoureux sur un grand lit
un receveur des contributions une chaise
trois dindons
un ecclésiastique un furoncle
une guêpe
un rein fl ottant
une écurie de courses
un fi ls indigne deux frères dominicains
trois sauterelles un strapontin
deux fi lles de joie un oncle Cyprien
une Mater dolorosa trois papas gâteau
deux chèvres de Monsieur Seguin
un talon Louis XV
un fauteuil Louis XVI
un buffet Henri II deux buffets Henri III
trois buffets Henri IV
un tiroir dépareillé
une pelote de fi celle deux épingles de
sûreté un monsieur âgé
une Victoire de Samothrace un
comptable deux aides-comptables
un homme du monde deux chirurgiens
trois végétariens
un cannibale
une expédition coloniale un cheval entier
une demi-pinte de bon
sang une mouche tsé-tsé
un homard à l’américaine un jardin à la
française
deux pommes à l’anglaise
un face-à-main un valet de pied un
orphelin un poumon d’acier
un jour de gloire
une semaine de bonté
un mois de Marie
une année terrible
une minute de silence
une seconde d’inattention
et …
cinq ou six ratons laveurs
un petit garçon qui entre à l’école en
pleurant
un petit garçon qui sort de l’école en
riant
une fourmi
deux pierres à briquet
dix-sept éléphants un juge d’instruction
en vacances assis sur un pliant
un paysage avec beaucoup d’herbe verte
dedans
une vache
un taureau
deux belles amours trois grandes orgues
NOUNS
NOUNS
37
un veau marengo
un soleil d’Austerlitz
un siphon d’eau de Seltz
un vin blanc citron
un Petit Poucet un grand pardon un
calvaire de pierre une échelle de corde
deux sœurs latines trois dimensions
douze apôtres mille et une nuits
trente-deux positions six parties du
monde cinq points cardinaux
dix ans de bons et loyaux services sept
péchés capitaux deux doigts
de la main dix gouttes avant chaque
repas trente jours de prison
dont quinze de cellule cinq minutes
d’entr’acte
et …
plusieurs ratons laveurs
Jacques Prévert
© Éditions Gallimard
Gender
Masculine Feminine
un raton
un rayon
un monsieur
un sculpteur
un lit
un ls
un frère
un gâteau
un fauteuil
un buffet
un tiroir
un homme
un valet
un orphelin
un garçon
un soleil
un paysage
un taureau
un veau
une maison
une douzaine
une légion
une contribution
une chaise
une écurie
une lle
une sûreté
une expédition
une semaine
une bonté
des amours
une sœur
une dimension
une position
une partie
1 Masculine nouns
Human beings are masculine or feminine according to their sex [1.2.1]: un monsieur,
un ls, un frère, un garçon, un homme, un valet, un orphelin
The young of animals are usually masculine [1.2.1]: un raton, un veau
The gender of some animals is predictable [1.2.1]:
un taureau
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
38
nouns ending in -on are masculine [1.2.4]: un rayon
nouns ending in -eur are masculine [1.2.4]: un sculpteur
nouns ending in -euil and -eil are masculine 1.2.4]: un fauteuil, un soleil
nouns ending in -oir are masculine [1.2.4]: un tiroir
nouns ending in -age are masculine [1.2.4]: un paysage
2 Feminine nouns
Human beings are masculine or feminine according to their sex [1.2.1]: une lle, une
sœur
nouns ending in -ison are feminine [1.2.6]: une maison
nouns ending in -ine are feminine [1.2.6]: une dizaine, une semaine
nouns ending in -(t)ion are feminine [1.2.6]: une légion, une dimension, une contribution,
une expédition, une position
nouns ending in -ie are feminine [1.2.6]: une écurie, une partie
nouns ending in -é are feminine [1.2.6]: une sûreté, une bonté
nouns ending in -ise are feminine [1.2.6]: une chaise
amour is feminine in the plural: deux belles amours, but masculine in the singular
[1.2.13].
3 Plurals of nouns
The plural of most nouns is formed by
adding s to the singular [1.3].
une maison des maisons
une ruine des ruines
Nouns ending in -s, -z and –x are the same
in the singular and the plural [1.3.1].
un amoureux des amoureux
un
ls des
ls
un mois des mois
Nouns ending in -au, -eau, -eu, -œu add –x
to form their plural [1.3.2].
un gâteau des gâteaux
un taureau des taureaux
Nouns ending in -al form their plural -aux
[1.3.4].
un cheval des chevaux
In compound nouns which combine noun +
noun it is usual for both components to
become plural [1.3.14].
un(e) aide-comptable des aides-comptables
In the combination noun + preposition +
noun, when the second noun modi es the
rst one, only the
rst noun becomes plural
[1.3.16].
un face-à-main des faces-à-main
NOUNS
NOUNS
39
Exercises
1 Give the masculine or the feminine of the following words, as
appropriate:
1. un agneau v
2. une amie v
3. un conseiller v
4. un coq v
5. la directrice v
6. un élève v
7. un épicier v
8. la fermière v
9. mon grand-père v
10. cette jument v
11. une marchande v
12. ma mère v
13. son oncle v
14. un paysan v
15. un pharmacien v
16. sa pouliche v
17. ta secrétaire v
18. une serveuse v
19. un vendeur v
20. sa voisine
v
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
40
2 Jean and Marie tend to imitate each other…
Complete the sentences:
Example: Quand Jean veut devenir enseignant, Marie veut devenir enseignante.
1. Mais quand Marie veut devenir basketteuse, Jean
2. Quand Jean veut devenir gérant de société, Marie
3. Quand Marie veut devenir mathématicienne, Jean
4. Quand Jean veut devenir attaché de presse, Marie
5. Marie veut devenir diplomate, Jean
6. Jean veut devenir avocat, Marie
7. Marie veut devenir aviatrice, Jean
8. Jean se conduit parfois comme un enfant, Marie
9. Marie sera peut-être bistrotière, Jean
10. Jean pense devenir poète, Marie
3 Jean and Marie are in a café. This time they have decided to play a game:
Marie only eats foods that are masculine in gender, Jean only those of
feminine gender.
1. Jean commande une tisane, Marie un
2. Marie commande un café, Jean une
3. Jean commande une bouteille de vin, Marie un
4. Marie commande un verre de lait, Jean une
5. Jean met une sucrette dans sa boisson chaude, Marie un
6. Marie prend de l’agneau, Jean de
7. Jean veut des olives en entrée, Marie des
NOUNS
NOUNS
41
8. Marie veut un peu plus de poulet, Jean plus de
9. Jean veut de la sarriette dans sa sauce, Marie du
10. Marie veut plus de sel sur son rôti, Jean plus de/d’
4 Read carefully the following list of nouns. Classify them in ve categories
corresponding to the columns below, placing them in the appropriate
boxes. Bear in mind the de nitions given (a, b, c, d, e) at the head of each
table.
sentinelle, camarade, danseur, poste, grand-père, Anglais, pianiste, araignée, acrobate,
oncle, in rmière, enfant, altesse, perroquet, concierge, stagiaire, jument, vache, chèvre,
nièce, Russe, recrue, crocodile, critique, Espagnole, chat, brebis, mannequin, moule,
Indienne, parallèle, artiste, pendule, secrétaire, victime, élève, architecte, livre, tigre, roi,
mémoire, ami, coq, voile, boulanger, somme
a) Animate
nouns which
do not
differentiate
between male
and female
(e.g. souris)
b) Nouns
which have
only one form
for masculine
and feminine
(e.g. un or une
artiste)
c) Animate
nouns having
different
words for
male and
female (e.g.
coq and poule)
d) Nouns
whose
feminine form
is a
modi cation
of the
masculine
form (e.g.
Écossais
– Écossaise)
e) Homonyms
whose
meaning varies
according to
the gender
(ex. le mode
– la mode)
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
42
5 Write the correct plural form of the words in brackets.
Il y a eu 3 incidents en deux (après-midi) dans 3 (ville) des
(environ). J’ai pu lire tous les (détail) dans les (journal) locaux ce
matin. Comme c’était l’époque des (festival), de nombreux (bus)
transportaient les (festivalier) à travers la ville. De jeunes (cycliste)
(nu-tête), sur des (vélo) aux (pneu) usés, jouaient à des
(jeu) imprudents, comme par exemple faire des (demi-tour)
brusques sur la chaussée. Soudain, à 50 (m) d’ici un bus t irruption, et en
moins de 2 (sec.) il alla heurter légèrement l’un des (jeune) avec son
rétroviseur, au niveau des (œil) et le t tomber sur les (genou).
Heureusement le jeune en fut quitte pour (quelque) (éra ure)
et (quelque) (bleu). Il y eut plus de peur que de mal.
43
2 DETERMINERS
A determiner is a useful term to cover all those words which give a context to a noun. In
English, these are words like the, a, this, my, some. Determiners are placed before the
noun.
The word ‘the’ in ‘The ring has been stolen’, refers to a speci c ring that is known to
you.
The word ‘a’ in ‘I’m going to buy you a ring’, refers to a ring which is unspeci c, not
‘known’ to you.
The words ‘this’ and ‘that’ in ‘I want this ring, not that one’, refer to objects that you
are pointing to.
The word ‘his’ in ‘His ring was expensive’, tells you who possesses the ring.
In this chapter the determiners covered are:
the de nite articles: le, la, l’, les
the inde nite articles: un, une, des
the partitive article: du, de l’, de la, des
the demonstrative adjectives: ce, cet, cette, ces
the possessive adjectives: mon, ma, mes; ton, ta, tes, etc.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
44
2.1 The three types of article
There are three types of determiner called ‘article’: de nite, inde nite and partitive, as in
the following table:
De nite article Inde nite article Partitive article
The noun referred to is
known to the speaker.
The noun referred to exists
but is not known to the
speaker.
The noun referred to is
abstract (e.g. l’amour [love],
la peur [fear]) or concrete
(e.g. eau [water] and pain
[bread]).The latter type of
noun is referred to as a
‘non-countable’ or ‘mass’
noun*. This type is hardly
ever used in the plural.
The noun referred to exists
but is not known to the
speaker.
Range le verre dans le buffet,
s’il te plaît !
Put the
glass in the
sideboard, please!
Vous avez une belle robe
aujourd’hui.
You have a beautiful dress
on today.
Rajoute de la crème et du
poivre dans ta sauce !
Add some cream and
(some) pepper to your
sauce!
*For an explanation of count and mass nouns, see 1.1.3.
Note
In French the same word is often used for the count noun referring to an animal as for
the mass noun for the meat derived from it, whereas English employs a different word to
express the mass noun:
le veau the calf un veau a calf du veau veal
le bœuf the bullock un bœuf a bullock du bœuf beef
2.2 Forms of the articles
The articles in French change their form according to the noun that follows. They take
either the singular or plural form, and the masculine or feminine form.
The different forms of the article are:
DETERMINERS
DETERMINERS
45
Singular Plural
Masculine Feminine Masculine and
feminine forms
De nite article
le (l’ before a
vowel or silent h)
la (l’ before a
vowel or silent h)
les
Contracted
forms of the
de nite article
With à au aux
With de du des
Inde nite article
un une des
Partitive article
du
(de l’ before a
vowel or silent h)
de la
(de l’ before a
vowel or silent h)
des
2.3 The de nite article
The de nite article is used with a noun that has been speci ed, i.e., has been mentioned
before, or is evident from the context.
KEY POINTS
The masculine singular article le contracts to:
au when preceded by the preposition à [à + le = au]
du when preceded by the preposition de [de + le = du]
The masculine plural article les contracts to:
aux when preceded by à [à + les = aux]
des when preceded by de [de + les = des]
Aux premières heures du matin le bus des
migrants sortit du bateau.
In the early hours of the morning the
migrants’ bus emerged from the boat.
Nous voyageons aux Antilles. We are travelling to the West Indies.
Nous revenons du Puy. We are returning from le Puy.
Although the de nite article is, for the most part, used in a similar way in French as in
English, there are instances where French uses it and English does not. The most
important of these uses is with nouns considered in a general sense, to refer to a class
of things or an abstract idea.
En France les ingénieurs sont mieux appreciés
qu’en Angleterre.
In France engineers are better valued than in
England.
Moi je préfère le café au thé. I prefer coffee to tea.
L’homme est le plus évolué des mammifères. Man is the most evolved of the mammals.
C’est de la folie ! It’s madness.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
46
2.3.1 Elision of le and la
le and la are shortened to l’ before a word beginning with a vowel or silent h
singular plural
l’avion (m) les avions the aeroplane(s)
l’attitude (f) les attitudes (the) attitude(s)
l’hiver (m) les hivers the winter(s)
l’honneur (m) les honneurs honour(s)
A number of words begin with aspirate h, for which le or la has to be used in the
singular, and not l’.
le hibou the owl
la haie the hedge
la haine hate
L’homme [silent h] en question avait l’habitude
[silent h] de tailler la haie [aspirate h] de
son jardin vers le début de l’été.
The man in question was in the habit of
cutting his garden hedge when summer
was about to begin.
2.3.2 Uses of the de nite article
In most statements where the noun referred to is known to the speaker the de nite
article is used in a similar way to English.
Avez-vous ouvert la porte ? Have you opened the door?
Le train de 21.30 va arriver dans 10 minutes. The 21.30 train will arrive in 10 minutes.
La Révolution française The French Revolution
As well as with nouns considered in a general sense
and with abstract ideas, French uses
the de nite article where English normally does not:
with the names of countries and geographical features:
La France, est-elle aussi grande que la Turquie ? Is France as big as Turkey?
with the names of languages:
On dit que le chinois est plus dif cile que le
japonais.
They say that Chinese is more dif
cult than
Japanese.
with the seasons:
L’hiver sera plus froid que l’année dernière. Winter will be colder than last year.
But when l’hiver, l’automne and l’été are preceded by en the article is omitted:
En éte, nous allons toujours en Catalogne. We always go to Catalonia in summer.
DETERMINERS
DETERMINERS
47
with titles:
Monsieur le Président Mr Chairman
Madame le (or la) Maire Madam Mayor
Monsieur le Ministre Minister
in superlatives, where the adjective comes after the noun, the article is repeated:
L’enfant le plus doué de la classe. The brightest child in the class.
with parts of the body and clothing, where English uses the possessive adjective:
Il se promène les mains dans les poches et la
chemise ouverte.
He’s walking with his hands in his pockets and
his shirt open.
2.4 The inde nite article
The inde nite article un (masculine), une (feminine) and des (plural) is used for a noun
that has not been speci ed, or not individualised enough to warrant the de nite article.
KEY POINTS
The use of the inde nite article un(e) is similar to English in the singular but the plural des
(some) is used where English commonly omits it. The sentence ‘He’s looking at samples’ in
French must contain the inde nite article: « Il regarde des échantillons ».
Il a posé des questions pertinentes. He asked relevant questions.
Je lui ai donné des chocolats. I gave her chocolates.
Il est revenu avec des amis de son frère. He came back with (some) friends of his
brother.
2.4.1 Uses of the inde nite article
The inde nite article is used for things that are unspeci ed, in a similar way to
English.
Elle aimerait bien acheter une voiture plus
puissante.
She would like to buy a more powerful car.
Il a vu un livre intéressant qu’il aimerait bien lui
offrir.
He saw an interesting book that he would
like to give her.
Note
It is important not to confuse un and une, the inde nite article (a, an in English), with un
and une meaning the number one in English.
When coming after a negative, un, une and des become de (or d’ before a vowel or
silent h), except after the verb être.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
48
Il avait une èvre forte hier. Aujourd’hui il n’a
pas de èvre; il peut sortir.
He had a high temperature yesterday. Today
he hasn’t got a temperature; he can go
out.
But
Ce ne sont pas des fraises que tu as vues mais
des framboises.
Those aren’t strawberries that you saw but
raspberries.
The plural inde nite article des becomes de (or d’ before a vowel or silent h) before a
plural noun preceded by an adjective. Compare:
Il a des af ches énormes sur son mur. He has enormous posters on his wall.
Il a d’énormes af
ches sur son mur.
des becomes d’ before autres:
Elle a bien d’autres chats à fouetter. She has other sh to fry. [lit. ‘cats to whip’]
Be careful not to confuse:
Il n’y a pas de chaises dans ce salon. There are no chairs in this sitting-room.
with
Il n’y a pas une chaise dans son salon. There isn’t a chair in his sitting room.
des, the inde nite article, with des, the contracted de nite article [de + les].
The two uses can easily be distinguished, by replacing des by un(e). If it is possible to
make this replacement des will be the inde nite article; if not, it will be the contracted
de nite article.
Il a ajouté des olives dans la sauce (il a ajouté
une olive).
He has added (some) olives to the sauce (He
has added one olive).
Therefore des = the inde nite article.
La cueillette des olives a lieu en automne. Olive-picking takes place in the autumn.
*« La cueillette une olive » is not possible; this is the preposition de + the de nite article les
(de+ les = des, the contracted de nite article).
DETERMINERS
DETERMINERS
49
2.5 The partitive article
KEY POINTS
The partitive article expresses the idea of ‘some’ in English with mass nouns such as sucre
(sugar), pain (bread) or abstract nouns, such as tristesse (sadness), colère (anger), peur
(fear), joie (joy). English often does not have a determiner with these nouns.
Donne-moi du lait ! Give me (some) milk!
On peut lire de la tristesse sur son visage. You can see sadness in his face.
After a negative form such as ne… pas, ne… plus, ne…jamais, de is used without a
following article, whether singular or plural. In English this idea is expressed by ‘any’, ‘no’
or ‘a’:
Il n’a pas bu d’alcool. He’s had [lit. ‘drunk’] no alcohol.
Je n’ai plus de papier. I haven’t got any more paper.
Il n’a jamais d’idées. He never has any ideas.
But
after être this rule does not apply:
Ce n’est pas de la viande. It’s not meat.
2.5.1 Uses of the partitive article
The partitive article is used before:
a mass noun:
Elle boit du champagne. She’s drinking (some) champagne.
Après 3 jours, il ne leur restait que du pain
et de l’eau.
After 3 days they had only bread and water
left.
an abstract noun:
Ils ont de la chance de s’en sortir à si bon
compte.
They are lucky [lit. ‘have some luck’] to get
off so lightly.
materials:
Pour faire du feu, il faut du bois et du papier. To make re, you need wood and paper.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
50
Notes
Since the partitive article is used with mass nouns, it is scarcely ever used in the plural.
However, certain words such as cendres (ash), ténèbres (darkness), vivres (food) and
rillettes (potted meat) are always used in the plural, and so the plural partitive article is
used with them: des vivres, des rillettes, etc.
Ils ont pris du bois et des vivres avec eux. They took some wood and food with them.
Be careful not to confuse:
the partitive article, de, with the preposition de before the singular de nite article:
Elle a bu de l’eau. She drank some water. (de l’ = partitive
article)
Elle vient de sortir de l’eau. She’s just come out of the water. (preposition
de + the de nite article l’)
the partitive article, du, with the contracted form du (de + le) of the masculine
de nite article:
Nous buvons du lait. We are drinking (some) milk. (partitive
article)
Il nous a parlé du Brésil. He spoke about Brazil. (preposition de + le)
2.6 Omission of the article
The article is normally omitted:
before the names of people and towns, unless they are quali ed:
De Gaulle est enterré à Colombey. De Gaulle is buried at Colombey.
À Lyon il a visité le Parc de la Tête d’Or et le
vieux Lyon.
In Lyons he visited the Parc de la Tête d’Or
and old Lyons.
but
Some proper nouns are preceded by the article: Le Puy, Le Havre, La Haye (the Hague).
After the prepositions en or de with feminine continents, countries or regions:
en Asie in Asia
en Bourgogne in Burgundy
Il est passé de France en Espagne par le cirque
de Gavarnie.
He went from France to Spain via the Cirque
de Gavarnie.
before a noun in apposition:
Sa mère, artiste de talent, voyage beaucoup. His mother, a talented artist, travels a lot.
DETERMINERS
DETERMINERS
51
before nouns used in a rhetorical address:
Françaises, Français, il est temps de voter pour le
bon parti !
Men and women of France, it is time to vote
for the right party!
before nouns following être unless the noun is modi ed by an adjective or a phrase:
Sa mère est avocate et son père ingénieur. His mother is a lawyer and his father an
engineer.
but
Sa mère est une avocate brillante. His mother is a brilliant lawyer.
before days of the week and months:
Rendez-vous mardi à midi. Let’s meet (on) Tuesday at midday.
but when modi ed by a date, adjective or phrase it may be preceded by an article:
Le samedi 20 novembre. On Saturday 20 November.
Il est venu le juillet où il a fait si chaud ! He came that very hot July!
in certain noun constructions:
Un château de cartes A house of cards
Un esprit de synthèse A spirit of synthesis
in certain verb constructions, phrases, set expressions and proverbs:
avoir faim to be hungry
faire faillite to go bankrupt
tirer satisfaction to draw satisfaction
perdre patience to lose patience
Chat échaudé craint l’eau froide. Once bitten, twice shy.
2.7 Demonstrative determiners
We use demonstrative determiners, ‘this, these’ and ‘that, those’ when we wish to point
to a particular thing, person or concept:
This shoe ts me better than that one.
Unlike in English, the simple form of the demonstrative in French makes no distinction
between objects that are near us (‘this’) and objects that are further away (‘that’).
Demonstrative determiners agree with the noun in number and gender.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
52
2.7.1 Forms
Masculine Feminine
Singular
ce
cet
cette
Plural
ces
KEY POINTS
In the masculine singular ce is used before a word beginning with a consonant or aspirate h:
ce désavantage this / that disadvantage
ce handicap this / that handicap
The form cet is used before a word beginning with a vowel or silent h:
J’ai vu cet homme sortir de cet hôtel. I saw that man come out of this / that hotel.
In the feminine singular there is one form, cette.
Tiens ! Écoute cette chanson ! Hey! Listen to this / that song!
In the plural there is one form for the masculine and feminine.
Range ces verres et ces tasses dans cette
armoire.
Put these / those glasses and cups away in
that cupboard.
2.7.2 Emphatic forms
To distinguish between objects that are near to the speaker and objects that are
further away, the suf xes -ci or -là may be added to the noun:
Ces temps-ci, il me semble qu’il fait plus chaud. These days it seems to me to be hotter.
En ce temps-là, nous n’avions pas de
téléphones portables.
In those days we didn’t have mobile phones.
When used in the same sentence, however, these emphatic forms don’t really indicate
proximity to, or distance from, the speaker, but are a means of contrasting two
objects:
Je mets cette cravate-ci ou cette cravate-là ce
soir ?
Should I wear this tie or that one tonight?
In contemporary spoken language, the particle -là is used more and more often, and
frequently replaces -ci, which is considered to be rather more formal:
Je crois que je préfère cette version-là; l’autre
est trop rapide.
I think I prefer this version; the other one is
too fast.
DETERMINERS
DETERMINERS
53
2.8 Possessive determiners
Possessive determiners indicate possession or show a relationship between the speaker
and a thing, person or idea. In English, the possessive determiner agrees with the
possessor: It’s our house. She’s my favourite singer. It’s their idea.
2.8.1 Forms
Masculine
singular
Feminine singular Plural
One
‘possessor’
1st pers.
sing.
mon ma (mon before a
vowel or silenth)
mes
2nd pers.
sing.
ton ta (ton before a
vowel or silent h)
tes
3rd pers.
sing.
son sa (son before a
vowel or silenth)
ses
Several
‘possessors’
1st pers.
plur.
notre nos
2nd pers.
plur.
votre vos
3rd pers.
plur.
leur leurs
KEY POINTS
Unlike in English, possessive determiners in French agree with the thing which is
possessed. The possessive determiner chosen depends on whether the thing possessed is
masculine or feminine, singular or plural.
Il aime ses élèves. [possessor 3rd person
singular; thing possessed plural]
He loves his pupils.
Ils aiment leur professeur. [possessor 3rd
person plural; thing possessed singular]
They love their teacher.
J’ai trouvé son article et sa photo sur internet. I found his article and his photo on the
internet.
Ma trousse de maquillage; notre trousse de
secours.
My make-up kit; our rst-aid kit.
The possessive determiners ma, ta, sa are replaced by mon, ton, son immediately before a
feminine noun beginning with a vowel or silent h.
Ton idée est bonne – ta première idée était
meilleure.
Your idea is a good one; your rst idea was
better.
Le sport contribue à mon hygiène mentale. Sport contributes to my mental health.
Son hélice a trois pales – sa seconde hélice est
tombée en panne.
His propeller has three blades; his second
propeller has broken.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
54
Notes
Take care not to confuse the possessive determiners leur and leurs with the invariable
personal pronoun leur (the plural of lui). To distinguish between them, you can
replace the possessive determiner leur by another possessive, such as ses, and the
personal pronoun leur by another personal pronoun, such as lui (see 3.2).
Ne leur (lui) dites pas où sont leurs (ses)
bonbons.
Don’t tell them (him / her) where their (his /
her) sweets are.
The possessive determiner is replaced by the de nite article with parts of the body and
clothing, provided there is no ambiguity (see 2.3.2).
Il se promène toujours un couteau à la ceinture,
les mains dans les poches et la tête haute.
He always walks with a knife in his belt, his
hands in his pockets and his head held
high.
To emphasize possession the adjective propre may be added, in the same way as ‘own’
in English.
Il a été trahi par son propre ls. He was betrayed by his own son.
DETERMINERS
DETERMINERS
55
Determiners in context
1 The articles
Les Cornichons
On est parti, samedi, dans une grosse
voiture,
Faire tous ensemble un grand pique-
nique dans la nature,
En emportant des paniers, des
bouteilles, des paquets,
Et la radio !
Des cornichons
De la moutarde
Du pain, du beurre
Des p’tits oignons
Des confi tures
Et des œufs durs
Des cornichons
Du corned-beef
Et des biscottes
Des macarons
Un tire-bouchons
Des petits-beurre
Et de la bière
Des cornichons.
On n’avait rien oublié, c’est maman qui
a tout fait.
Elle avait travaillé trois jours sans
s’arrêter
Pour préparer les paniers, les bouteilles,
les paquets
Et la radio !
Le poulet froid
La mayonnaise
Le chocolat
Les champignons
Les ouvre-boîtes
Et les tomates
Les cornichons.
Mais quand on est arrivé, on a
trouvé la pluie
C’qu’on avait oublié, c’était les parapluies
On a ramené les paniers, les bouteilles,
les paquets
Et la radio !
On est rentré
Manger à la maison
Le fromage et les boîtes
Les confi tures et les cornichons
La moutarde et le beurre
La mayonnaise et les cornichons
Le poulet, les biscottes
Les œufs durs et puis les cornichons.
Les cornichons / big Nick
Nino Ferrer & J. Booker
© publishing universal music
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
56
The de nite, inde nite and partitive articles [2.1–2.6]
Determiner Masculine singular Feminine singular Plural
De nite article le poulet;
le chocolat;
le fromage;
le beurre
la nature; la radio;
la mayonnaise;
la pluie; la maison;
la moutarde
les paniers;
les bouteilles;
les paquets;
les champignons;
les ouvre-boîtes;
les tomates;
les cornichons;
les parapluies;
les boîtes;
les con tures;
les œufs;
les biscottes
Inde
nite article un grand pique-nique;
un tire-bouchons
une grosse voiture des paniers;
des bouteilles;
des paquets;
des cornichons;
des oignons;
des con tures;
des œufs;
des biscottes;
des macarons;
des petits-beurre
Partitive article du pain; du beurre;
du corned-beef
de la moutarde;
de la bière
2 Other determiners
Ces nouvelles technologies qui passionnent notre jeunesse !
Avec leurs laboratoires ultra modernes et leur savoir-faire commun, les sociétés « Disque Optique »
et « Digi-Disc » ont battu tous leurs rivaux dans ce domaine si convoité du disque optique numérique.
Grâce à sa gamme de supports variée, « Disque Optique » est devenue numéro un mondial du DV
PAL et ses 25 images par seconde et du DVD de studio professionnel. Quant à « Digi-Disc » et ses
logiciels de création de DVD Blu-ray 3D, elle vient de réussir un beau coup marketing. En effet, cet
après-midi, cette très jeune société annonçait une véritable révolution dans la technologie du disque
optique et ce soir, le cours de son action grimpait en èche.
Pourtant, ce logiciel n’est pas parfait. On lui reproche notamment son grand nombre d’automatismes.
Dans son discours face aux médias, le PDG justi ait ainsi son produit: « Notre logiciel est adapté à vos
attentes et celles de tous nos clients en général. Il est à la fois très performant et très facile d’utilisation. »
« Nous ne critiquons pas ses performances, répliquaient les journalistes, mais plutôt cette frustration
de liberté imposée par ces trop nombreux automatismes. »
Les deux sociétés ont nalement promis de transmettre ces critiques à leur bureau de recherche et
développement.
DETERMINERS
DETERMINERS
57
Demonstrative and possessive determiners
Demonstrative determiners [2.7]
masculine singular ce domaine; ce soir; ce logiciel
masculine singular before a vowel or silent
‘h’
cet après-midi
feminine singular cette très jeune société; cette frustration
plural Ces nouvelles technologies; ces trop nombreux
automatismes; ces critiques
Possessive determiners [2.8]
Masc. sing Fem. sing Before a vowel Plural
1st person
singular
2nd person
singular
3rd person
singular
son grand
nombre;
son discours;
son produit
sa gamme son action (f) ses 25 images; ses
logiciels; ses
performances
1st person
plural
notre jeunesse;
notre logiciel
nos clients
2nd person
plural
vos attentes
3rd person
plural
leur savoir-faire;
leur bureau
leurs laboratoires;
leurs rivaux
Exercises
1 Fill the gaps with an appropriate demonstrative determiner:
1. J’aime série télévisée allemande.
2. J’aime langage simple et façon naturelle d’exprimer les
émotions les plus intenses.
3. J’aime aussi tons de pastel, et campagne sereine.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
58
4. J’aime habits archaïques qui lui donne côté désuet.
5. Et puis acteurs si talentueux, actrices si subtiles.
6. Je verrais très bien forme d’art entrer dans les programmes scolaires.
7. genre est relativement nouveau, mais il a acquis une certaine maturité.
8. C’est maturité qui m’étonne le plus.
9. Je regarderai l’épisode de soir quoi qu’il arrive.
10. fois, je ne me laisserai pas distraire par mes amis.
2 Fill the gaps with an appropriate possessive determiner:
1. famille est assez grande.
2. deux sœurs sont plus âgées que moi.
3. distraction préférée c’est de me taquiner.
4. Et je passe temps à me défendre.
5. mère me protégeait quand j’étais plus jeune.
6. Mais maintenant elle a trop à faire avec grand-mère, arrière
grand-mère donc.
7. frère est plus jeune que moi.
8. journées à nous sont aussi mouvementées.
9. sport favori, à frère et à moi, c’est le frisbee.
10. Et sport favori à vous, quel est-il ?
3 Fill the gaps with a suitable determiner:
Un malheur ne vient jamais seul !
1. Mais journée ne fut qu’ suite de mésaventures.
2. matin voiture n’a pas voulu démarrer, j’ai dû prendre
bus.
DETERMINERS
DETERMINERS
59
3. Mais j’avais oublié de prendre argent.
4. J’avais bien carte de crédit, mais pouvais-je payer bus avec
carte bancaire ?
5. Heureusement il me restait monnaie. Juste ce qu’il fallait.
6. En traversant avenue, moto a failli me renverser. Elle m’a juste
ef euré bras.
7. fois restaurant, on m’a donné place plus
incommode, près cuisines.
8. J’ai commandé agneau et purée, mais il ne restait que
poulet et haricots.
9. viande et légumes baignaient dans huile.
10. Et j’ai dû rajouter sel et poivre ; goût pour
épices est prononcé.
11. soir j’irai cinéma plutôt, ils passent lm de
Truffaut, metteur en scène préféré.
4 Fill the gaps with a suitable determiner from the box:
les, le, l’, de l’, de la, du, des, au, aux, de,
une, un, mon, son, ma, sa, ses, ce, ces, cette
1. Demain, c’est samedi et je vais faire courses avec amie Rose.
2. frère à elle est plus proche de moi, mais moins patient qu’elle pour
shopping.
3. amie, bien sûr, a propres défauts, mais qui n’en a pas
défauts ?
4. Dans famille, par exemple, c’est elle qui représente autorité
familiale.
5. fois, elle me montre torchon et d’ air ironique elle me
dit : Sais-tu à quoi sert torchon-là ? À essuyer assiettes-ci,
cher ami !
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
60
6. Ou autre fois, elle montre horloge et me dit : Sais-tu à quoi sert
horloge-là ? À arriver à heure, grand garçon !
7. Mais dans magasins ou marché elle est cool, elle a
humour et patience à revendre.
8. Nous allons certainement acheter ingrédients pour curry :
riz, épices, légumes et viande, probablement
poulet, bien que préférence aille fruits de mer.
9. fois, ce sera tour de faire cuisine.
10. Mais il est heure, vite, blouson ! Celui qui a grandes
poches… J’aime me promener mains dans poches !
5 Fill the gaps with the correct de nite, inde nite or partitive determiner:
Que faut-il pour fabriquer du papier à la maison ?
bres de cellulose : papier journal trempé dans eau fera
l’affaire. mortier et pilon, pour broyer papier journal
mouillé. On obtient ainsi pâte à papier
cuvette carrée ou rectangulaire remplie d’eau dans laquelle on mettra
pâte à papier. Remuer a n de séparer bres entre elles.
tamis avec trous très ns que l’on placera au fond
cuvette.
cadre que l’on plongera dans mélange d’eau et de pâte à papier (4
petites planches ou un cintre métallique feront affaire).
planche pour aplanir pâte une fois le cadre sorti de eau.
sèche-cheveu pour sécher feuille ainsi obtenue.
geste pour protéger planète. Je réutilise papier en
écrivant sur deux côtés feuilles.
61
3 PRONOUNS
Pronouns stand in the place of nouns. For example, in a conversation, you might give a
friend’s name rst in order to identify him, and then use pronouns to replace nouns
subsequently:
Matt ew to France yesterday. He went with Jim; they took two suitcases with them.
We all use pronouns as a kind of shorthand to avoid clumsy or needless repetition. A
pronoun does not tell you anything more about the noun it is replacing; it simply acts as
a neat and shorter substitute.
Pronouns may appear in four main places in a sentence:
as the subject (English ‘I’, ‘he’)
as the direct object (English ‘me’, ‘them’)
as the indirect object (English ‘you’, ‘us’, preceded by a preposition like ‘to’)
after a preposition (English ‘after you’, ‘above it’)
The following types of pronoun are covered in this chapter:
personal pronouns, the equivalent of ‘I’ , ‘you’, ‘to him’, etc. They can be subject,
direct object, indirect object, or appear after prepositions.
demonstrative pronouns, the equivalent of ‘this one, ‘that one’, ‘these ones’ , ‘those
ones.
possessive pronouns, the equivalent of ‘mine’, ‘yours’, etc.
inde nite pronouns, the equivalent of ‘someone, ‘whoever’, ‘several’, etc.
The following pronouns are covered elsewhere: negative (Chapter 7), relative (Chapter
14) and interrogative (Chapter 15).
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
62
Subject, direct object and indirect object
pronouns
In French the personal pronouns refer to both people and things. The pronouns y and en,
which have no exact equivalent in English, are widely used.
Subject Direct object Indirect object
First person singular
je / j’ I me / m’ me me / m’ to me
Second person singular
tu you te / t’ you te / t’ to you
Third person singular
il he, it
elle she, it
on one, we,
they
le/l’ him, it
la/l’ her, it
lui to
him,
to her,
to it
First person plural
nous we nous us nous to us
Second person plural
vous you vous you vous to you
Third person plural
ils they
elles they
les them leur to them
Table 1 Subject, object and indirect object pronouns
PRONOUNS
PRONOUNS
63
y and en
the pronoun y is the rough equivalent of ‘there’ and stands for phrases of location,
beginning with à, en, dans, sur, etc.
Il est à la piscine. Il y va toutes les deux
semaines.
He’s at the pool. He goes there every
fortnight.
the pronoun en stands for phrases beginning with de.
J’en reviens à l’instant. I’ve just come from there.
Note
The subject pronoun je, and the object pronouns me, te, le / la elide to j’, m’, t’ and l’
when a vowel follows:
Il m’a demandé de venir mais j’ai dit non. He asked me to come but I refused.
Je l’ai vu dans la rue. I saw him / her in the street.
Tu t’en vas ? Are you going?
3.1 Subject pronouns
KEY POINTS
A subject pronoun stands for the person, thing or idea which is the subject of the
sentence:
J’arrive. I’m coming.
Ils font du bruit. They are making a noise.
Nous sommes fatigués. We’re tired.
Subject pronouns agree in number and gender with the person(s) they stand for:
Michel est honnête. Il ne ment jamais. Michel is honest. He never lies.
Rose est une bonne actrice dans ce lm, et en
plus elle est belle.
Rose is a good actor in that lm;
furthermore, she is beautiful.
They are placed before the verb except where there is inversion, as when asking
questions:
Pourquoi riez-vous ? Why are you laughing?
Ont-elles payé leur loyer ? Have they paid their rent?
il / elle / ils / elles refer to persons, animals and things:
Le chien a l’air d’être malade. Il manque
d’énergie.
The dog seems ill. He has no energy.
La ville est trop bruyante; elle est sale aussi. The town is too noisy; it’s dirty too.
Ce sont des vélos volés; ils ont été récupérés
par la police.
They are stolen bikes; they’ve been
recovered by the police.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
64
on refers to ‘someone’, ‘people’, ‘they’, ‘you’ ‘we’, ‘one’ depending on the context:
On ne sait jamais. One never knows / You never know.
On habite à deux pas de l’arrêt de bus. We live a few steps away from the bus stop.
3.1.1 tu and vous
tu and vous are both used to address a person as ‘you’. In order to choose the correct
one to use in a given situation some understanding of French social relationships is
necessary.
tu is used when the relationship between you and the person addressed is a close
one. It is mostly used for friends and family, but not exclusively: young people tend
to address each other as tu (tutoyer), whether they are close friends or not; adults
use tu to address young children.
vous is used to address (a) a single person formally, e.g. a stranger, a work
colleague (vouvoyer), and (b) more than one person, regardless of whether they are
close to you or not.
Patrick, tu exagères ! Tu as vu ? Tu as une
demi-heure de retard !
Patrick, this is too much! Can’t you see that
you’re half an hour late?
Monsieur le député, irez-vous à Paris en taxi ? [addressing an MP] Are you going to Paris by
taxi, sir?
3.1.2 ils and elles
Ils refers to either masculine plural nouns or mixed masculine and feminine nouns;
elles refers to feminine plural nouns only.
Je n’aime pas les araignées; elles me font peur ! I don’t like spiders; they frighten me!
La bière et le vin ? Ils ne sont pas produits dans
les mêmes régions.
Beer and wine? They are not produced in the
same regions.
3.1.3 on
The use of on is much more widespread than ‘one’ in English.
On is used:
as the equivalent of ‘people’, ‘someone’, ‘they’, ‘you’, ‘one’:
On dit que les Français conduisent vite. They say the French drive fast.
On m’a dit qu’en Angleterre on buvait du
bon thé.
Someone told me that in England people
drank good tea.
PRONOUNS
PRONOUNS
65
as a replacement for nous in speech. In this case a qualifying adjective is in the plural:
On vient de faire 80 km à vélo, on est vannés. We’ve just cycled 80 kilometres and we’re
knackered.
On a nalement décidé de prendre le train. We nally decided to take the train.
to express a passive idea:
On a refait le pont entièrement l’année dernière. The bridge was entirely rebuilt last year.
Je suis perdu ! On a changé le nom des rues
dans ce quartier.
I’m lost! All the street names in this area have
been changed.
Note
In written French, on is sometimes replaced by l’on, especially after et, ou, où, pourquoi,
qui, quoi, si:
En Écosse, où que l’on aille le paysage est
splendide.
Wherever you go in Scotland the landscape is
magni cent.
Si l’on comprend bien, … If one understands it correctly, …
3.1.4 Subject–verb inversion
In French, the normal order of words is subject (noun or pronoun) + verb:
Elles voyagent. They’re travelling.
In certain circumstances, however, inversion of the subject pronoun and the verb is
made. Inversion can be optional.
When inversion takes place, the pronoun is attached to the verb by a hyphen. If the verb
ends in a vowel -t- is inserted between the verb and the pronoun:
A-t-elle bien mesuré les conséquences ? Has she considered the consequences
properly?
Note
Liaison between the inverted pronoun and the verb is compulsory if the verb ends in a
consonant. For example, in: Elle a, dit-elle, bien mesuré les conséquences. (She has considered
the consequences properly, she says), the -t in dit is sounded.
Types of inversion
in questions (see 15.1.1)
Avez-vous assez d’argent ? Have you got enough money?
Vos parents ont-ils de l’argent ? Have your parents any money?
Pourquoi
faut-il autant d’argent ? Why do we need so much money?
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
66
In short interpolated phrases after:
dire (to say), demander (to ask), penser (to think)
sembler (to seem), paraître (to appear), etc., when used impersonally
Mes amis, dit-elle, je vous présente votre
nouveau directeur.
My friends, said she, I would like to introduce
you to your new director.
On a, paraît-il, restauré le Pont du Gard. We have, it seems, restored the Pont du
Gard.
« Avez-vous un stylo ? », a-t-elle demandé. ‘Have you got a pen?’ she asked.
In sentences beginning with certain adverbs or adverbial phrases, inversion can be
mandatory or not, according to which adverb is used.
Compulsory inversion
After à peine (scarcely), du moins (at least), encore (still), rarement (rarely), en vain (in vain)
À peine était-il arrivé qu’il partit aussitôt. Scarcely had he arrived than he left.
Encore faut-il lui faire con ance. It’s still necessary to have con dence in him.
It is important to note that if the subject is not a personal pronoun or ce or on, it is
placed before the verb and duplicated after the verb by a personal pronoun attached to
the verb by a hyphen.
À peine Camilla était-elle arrivée qu’elle partit
aussitôt.
Scarcely had Camilla arrived than she left.
Note
Inversion in the expression toujours est-il que:
Toujours est-il qu’on ne l’a jamais retrouvé. The fact remains that we have never found it.
Inversion or que
After peut-être (perhaps) and sans doute (doubtless) it is necessary either to invert or use
que without inversion:
Peut-être connaissait-il la solution / Peut-être
qu’il connaissait la solution.
Perhaps he knew the answer.
Optional inversion
After ainsi (so), aussi (also), encore (still), en vain (in vain) inversion is optional.
Ainsi fut-il décidé qu’on se réunirait le lendemain.
/ Ainsi il fut décidé qu’on se réunirait le
lendemain.
So it was decided that we should meet the
next day.
PRONOUNS
PRONOUNS
67
An exclamation or a subjunctive, expressing a strong desire, can be replaced by an
inversion.
Suis-je stupide ! J’ai mal lu la notice. How foolish I am! I misread the notice. (for
Que je suis stupide !)
Puissiez-vous un jour en n comprendre ! It would be good if one day you could nally
understand! (for Si vous pouviez en n
comprendre !)
3.1.5 Impersonal il
Il (‘it’) is frequently used impersonally:
in weather expressions:
Il pleut. It’s raining.
Il fait nuit. It’s night(-time).
Il fait du vent. It’s windy.
Il tonne. It’s thundering.
for saying the time:
Quelle heure est-il ? What time is it?
Il est trois heures. It’s 3 o’clock.
as the subject of an impersonal expression (see 8.5):
Il est dif cile de savoir ce qu’il pense. It’s dif cult to know what he thinks.
Note
Il est and c’est, when used as impersonal subjects, have the same meaning. Il est is more
formal and common in written French whereas c’est is more common in everyday
French. They have the same structure:
either
Il est / C’est + adjective + que
or
Il est / C’est + adjective + preposition + in nitive
Il est clair qu’il s’est trompé. It’s clear that he’s made a mistake.
C’est clair qu’il s’est trompé.
Il est facile de se tromper. It’s easy to make a mistake.
C’est facile de se tromper.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
68
with certain very common phrases: il y a (there is / are), il s’agit de (it’s a question of), il
faut (it is necessary), il vaut mieux (it’s better), il se peut (maybe)
Il semble qu’il y ait un problème de carburateur. It seems that there’s a problem with the
carburettor.
Il s’agit de ne pas se tromper. It’s a question of not making a mistake.
Note
In spoken French ça is sometimes used instead of il:
Ça pleut. It’s raining.
Ça se peut qu’il vienne. He may come.
Ça risque de barder ! Sparks may y!
3.2 Direct and indirect object pronouns
KEY POINTS
Object pronouns stand for the person, thing or idea which is the object of the sentence:
Apportez ces livres. Je vais les lire en vacances. Bring those books. I’m going to read them
on holiday.
Object pronouns agree in number and gender with the person(s) they stand for:
Marianne va venir. Tu la connais ? Marianne is coming. Do you know her?
Object pronouns, unlike in English, are usually placed before the verb:
Il me l’a envoyé la semaine dernière. He sent me it last week.
3.2.1 Direct object in English = indirect object in French
It is important to recognize those French verbs which are followed by an indirect
object where English requires a direct object, e.g. apprendre à, téléphoner à, conseiller à:
Je lui ai téléphoné trois fois. I’ve phoned her / him three times.
Il lui a appris à souder de petits objets. He taught her / him how to weld small
objects.
A number of verbs in English, like ‘to give’, ‘to send’, ‘to tell’, ‘to offer’, ‘to teach’ take
two direct objects, where the French equivalent is a direct object plus an indirect
object. The English construction can usually also be written as direct object + indirect
object by placing ‘to’ before the relevant pronoun.
Elle le lui a donné hier. She gave him it yesterday. [OR She gave it to
him yesterday.]
PRONOUNS
PRONOUNS
69
Mon copain le leur a envoyé. My friend sent them it. [OR My friend sent it
to them.]
Il me l’a dit. He told me [it]. [lit. *‘He told it to me’.]
3.2.2 le as a neutral pronoun
Le functions both as a masculine pronoun and as a neutral one, referring usually to
previously stated phrases or whole sentences, especially with savoir and pouvoir. There is
sometimes no equivalent in English for le used in this way.
On ne peut pas changer sa personnalité,
je le sais.
You can’t change your personality, I know. (le
here refers to all of the previous
statement, i.e., the fact of not being able to
change one’s personality)
Tu m’en demandes trop, je ne pourrai
pas le faire.
You are asking too much of me; I will not be
able to do it. (le refers to the thing that is
being asked)
3.2.3 lui and leur
Lui and leur refer to either masculine or feminine nouns:
Je lui ai donné la clé de la voiture. I’ve given him / her the car key.
Demandez-leur s’ils vont au marché. Ask them if they are going to the market.
(leur could refer to the masculine,
feminine or a mixture of the two)
3.2.4 Position of object pronouns
Object pronouns are normally placed immediately before the verb:
Je leur ai répété 100 fois ! I’ve told them 100 times!
Note
In negative sentences ne is placed before the object pronoun:
Je ne l’ai pas vu(e). I didn’t see him / her.
In compound tenses, object pronouns are placed immediately before the auxiliary verb
avoir:
Je les ai vus il y a cinq minutes à peine. I saw them scarcely ve minutes ago.
(See also 10.6.4.)
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
70
Where the verb that relates to the pronoun is an in nitive, the object is normally
placed before the in nitive:
Je voudrais vous inviter à diner chez moi ce soir. I’d like to invite you to dine at my place this
evening.
Arrêtez de m’ennuyer avec vos histoires ! Stop annoying me with your nonsense!
Note
When an in nitive is dependent on a verb such as écouter, entendre, faire, laisser, regarder,
sentir, voir, the object of the in nitive is placed before the main verb:
Je les vois faire tous les jours. I see them do it every day.
Mes parents m’ont laissé partir seul. My parents let me go away by myself.
With af rmative imperatives (see 10.1.1):
object pronouns are placed immediately after the verb, and joined to the verb by a
hyphen:
Regardez-les ! Look at them!
Taisez-vous ! Be quiet!
the forms me and te are replaced by moi and toi respectively:
Regardez-moi ! Look at me! (not *Regardez-me !)
After negative imperatives, the pronoun is placed before the verb:
Ne le bois pas. Don’t drink it!
Ne lui donnez pas les billets. Don’t give him / her the tickets.
3.2.5 Agreement of the direct object with the past participle in
compound tenses
In compound tenses when using the auxiliary avoir, or with pronominal verbs in certain
circumstances, the past participle agrees in number and gender with a preceding direct
object (see 10.6.4).
Tu as vu mes lunettes de soleil ? Non, je ne les ai pas vues. Have you seen my sunglasses? No,
I haven’t seen them. (vues agrees in gender and number with the feminine plural direct
object les [= lunettes]).
Elle s’est lavée. She washed / has washed (i.e. herself).
Elle s’est lavé les mains. She washed her hands.
Elle se les est lavées. She washed them.
– Ont-ils bien sauvegardé les documents ? ‘Have they saved the documents properly?’
– Oui, pas de problème, ils les ont bien
sauvegardés.
‘Yes, don’t worry. They’ve saved them
properly.’
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71
3.3 y
KEY POINTS
y, meaning ‘there’ ‘in it’ ‘to it’, indicates location, and normally refers to things and not
people:
– Vous êtes déjà revenus de France ? ‘You’re already back from France?’
– Non, en fait c’est la semaine prochaine que
nous y allons.
‘No, in fact, we’re going there next week.’
y follows the same rules for position in relation to the verb as other object pronouns:
J’y vais. I’m going (there).
3.3.1 y indicating location
y stands for phrases indicating location which are introduced by prepositions such as à,
dans, sur and devant.
Nous allons au musée cet après-midi. We’re going to the museum this afternoon.
Nous y allons cet après-midi. We’re going there this afternoon.
Je dois vite aller au centre sportif, mes amis
m’y attendent déjà !
I must go to the sports centre quickly; my
friends are waiting for me there already.
– Envoie-moi un texto quand tu seras dans le
train !
‘Send me a text when you are on the train.’
– Mais j’y suis déjà ! ‘But I’m already on it!’
– Au tennis, est-ce que tu joues
sur terre battue ? ‘Do you play tennis on clay courts?’
– Non, j’
y joue jamais, je préfère le gazon. ‘No, I never play on them; I prefer grass
courts.’
3.3.2 y following certain verbs
With certain verbs, e.g. penser à, songer à, tenir à, arriver à, y replaces à plus a following
in nitive.
– As-tu pensé à changer les draps ? ‘Have you thought about changing the
sheets?’
– J’y ai pensé. ‘I have.’
– Est-ce que tu tiens vraiment à faire ce long
voyage ?
‘Are you really set on making that long
journey?’
– J’y tiens. ‘I am.’
– As-tu songé à fermer la porte à clé ? ‘Have you considered locking the door?’
– Oui, j’y ai songé. ‘Yes, I have.’
Il n’est pas arrivé à apprendre à conduire. He hasn’t managed to learn to drive.
Il n’y est pas arrivé. He hasn’t managed it.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
72
3.3.3 Useful phrases with y
y is found in a number of useful phrases:
Allons-y. Let’s go.
Ça y est. That’s it (then).
Il n’y a pas de quoi. Not at all / Don’t mention it.
il y a longtemps a long time ago
y compris including
Vas-y ! Allez-y ! Go on!
3.4 en
KEY POINTS
en, meaning ‘of / about it’, ‘of / about them’, stands for phrases introduced by de:
Nous avons parlé de son projet. We spoke about his project.
Nous en avons parlé. We spoke about it.
Combien de kilos d’abricots désirez-vous ? How many kilos of apricots do you want?
J’en veux trois. I want three.
en follows the same rules for position in relation to the verb as other object pronouns.
en may be used to refer to things and, in the spoken language, to people:
– Est-ce que tu le connais ? ‘Do you know him?’
– Non, j’en ai entendu parler simplement. ‘No, I’ve just heard about him.’ (entendre
parler de quelqu’un)
On n’a recruté qu’une in rmière sur deux,
pourtant on en a vraiment besoin.
We’ve only recruited one out of two
nurses, yet we really need them
De la viande ? J’en mange parfois, pas souvent. Meat? I eat it sometimes, not often.
3.4.1 en with numbers and quanti ers
en is used with numbers and quanti ers. In most cases there is no pronoun equivalent in
English.
Voulez-vous un billet pour l’exposition ? J’en ai
acheté deux.
Do you want a ticket for the exhibition? I’ve
bought two (of them).
J’en ai trop. I’ve got too many.
Il m’en restait sept hier, il ne m’en reste plus. I had seven over yesterday; I haven’t got any
left.
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73
3.4.2 Verbs and expressions with en
Certain verbs and expressions are followed by en, whose equivalent is a direct object in
English.
avoir besoin de:
Il nous a proposé un emprunt, mais nous n’en
avons pas besoin.
He offered us a loan but we don’t need one.
se servir de:
On m’a prêté ces outils, mais je ne sais pas
m’en servir.
He’s lent me these tools, but I don’t know
how to use them.
3.5 Re exive pronouns
Re exive pronouns are object pronouns which refer back to the subject of the sentence.
In English, the re exive pronouns are ‘myself’, ‘yourself’, etc. In ‘She cut herself’ the
re exive pronoun ‘herself’ refers back to the subject ‘She’ (see 8.4).
The re exive pronouns are the same as direct object pronouns except in the third person.
First person singular
me (to) myself
Second person singular
te (to) yourself
Third person singular
se (to) himself, herself, itself, oneself
First person plural
nous (to) ourselves
Second person plural
vous (to) yourselves
Third person plural
se (to) themselves
KEY POINTS
Re exive pronouns in French have four main uses:
with pronominal verbs
Je me lève à six heures. I get up at six o’clock.
in a reciprocal meaning
Ils se sont félicités. They congratulated each other.
in constructions which in English would be in the passive
Les fraises se mangent avec de la crème. Strawberries are eaten with cream.
with parts of the body, where English would use a possessive adjective
Je me suis lavé les cheveux. I washed my hair.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
74
3.5.1 Pronominal verbs
Note that in pronominal verbs the re exive pronoun does not usually have an equivalent
in English (using ‘myself’, etc.), e.g. s’asseoir (to sit [down]), se laver (to wash), se lever (to
get up), se raser (to shave) (see 8.4.1).
Ils s’assoient sur l’herbe. They sit [lit. sit themselves] down on the
grass.
En rentrant du travail, je me change et je me
mets un instant devant la télévision.
When I come back from work, I get changed
and I sit [lit. put myself] in front of the
television for a while.
3.5.2 Reciprocal use
Note that in reciprocal sentences (see 8.4.1) the re exive pronoun is often understood in
English, and does not always have an equivalent, e.g. se rencontrer (to meet), se dire au
revoir (to say goodbye), se serrer la main (to shake hands), s’embrasser (to hug), se disputer
(to argue).
Nous nous sommes rencontrés tôt ce matin, nous
sommes salués, puis nous sommes séparés
très vite.
We met (each other) early this morning, we
greeted each other, then we separated
(from each other) very quickly.
Je crois bien qu’ils se sont disputés hier. I think they had an argument yesterday.
3.5.3 Passive meaning
Note that the passive voice is used much less frequently in French than in English.
Ce vin se boit avec du poisson. This wine is drunk with sh.
De tels actes violents se voient rarement dans
nos contrées.
Such violent acts are rarely seen in our lands.
Cette école s’appelle Lycée Victor Hugo. This school is called the Lycée Victor Hugo.
(See 8.2.3.)
3.5.4 Use with parts of the body
When referring to parts of the body and clothing, the re exive pronoun is used rather
than the possessive determiner (see 2.8.1).
Elle va se faire couper les cheveux. She’s going to have her hair cut.
Il s’est cassé la clavicule en tombant. He broke his collarbone when he fell.
Elle s’est désinfecté le genou avec de l’alcool. She disinfected her knee with alcohol.
3.5.5 Re exive pronouns which have no equivalent in English
Many pronominal verbs have no re exive idea in the English equivalent: se douter de (to
suspect), s’écrier (to shout), s’évanouir (to faint), se er à (to trust), s’occuper de (to look
PRONOUNS
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75
after), se réveiller (to wake up), se souvenir de (to remember), se taire (to keep quiet), se
tromper (to make a mistake).
Il s’est trompé d’heure et n’a pu s’occuper des
enfants.
He forgot the time and wasn’t able to look
after the children.
À quelle heure se réveillent-ils d’habitude ? At what time do they usually wake up?
Veuillez vous taire, s’il vous plaît ? Will you keep quiet, please?
3.5.6 Addition of moi-même, etc.
The following pronouns are often added to a sentence containing a re exive verb, for
emphasis: moi-même (myself), toi-même (yourself), lui-même (himself), elle-même (herself),
soi-même (oneself), nous-mêmes (ourselves), vous-mêmes (yourselves), eux-mêmes (themselves),
elles-mêmes (themselves).
Il s’est rendu compte lui-même du mensonge. He himself realized it was a lie.
Je ne m’en souviens pas moi-même. I don’t remember it myself.
3.6 Order of object pronouns
3.6.1 Object pronouns before the verb
When two object pronouns, including y and en, come before the verb they follow the
order in the table below:
me
te
se
nous
vous
le
la
les
lui
leur y en
Table 2 Order of object pronouns
Il nous l’a montré avant. He showed us it beforehand.
Elle s’en est acheté plusieurs. She bought herself several of them.
Qui s’y frotte s’y pique ! If you go looking for trouble, you’ll nd it.
When a direct and an indirect object come together before the verb:
if both objects are in the third person, the direct object comes rst:
Je le lui ai donné. I gave him it.
if only one of the objects is in the third person the direct object comes second:
Il me l’a donné. He gave me it.
Ils me les ont prêtés et je les leur ai rendus
immédiatement.
They lent me them and I gave them back
straight away.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
76
3.6.2 Object pronouns after the af rmative imperative
When two object pronouns follow the af rmative imperative, the order they follow
differs from that of Table 2 in one respect: third person pronouns precede rst and
second person pronouns. The pronouns are linked by hyphens:
Donne-les-moi. Give me them.
Dites-le-nous. Tell us (it).
Allez-vous-en. Go away!
Donnez-le-leur. Give it to them.
Note
The forms me and te are replaced by moi and toi respectively, except before y and en:
Va-t’en. Go away!
Commence à t’y diriger pendant que j’attends. Start going there while I wait.
Negative imperatives follow the order in Table 2 above:
Ne le leur donnez pas. Don’t give it to them.
Ne m’en parle plus jamais ! Don’t ever speak to me about it!
3.6.3 Two object pronouns after certain verbs
When a number of verbs, including faire, laisser and entendre, are followed by the
in nitive, two object pronouns normally come before the verb and not the in nitive:
Il me l’a fait boire. He made me drink it.
Elle le lui a laissé croire. She let him believe it.
3.6.4 Object pronouns after devoir and pouvoir
When devoir and pouvoir are followed by the in nitive, object pronouns normally precede
the in nitive:
Vous pouvez me le donner quand nous serons
chez nous.
You can give me it when we get home.
Vous devrez me l’avoir remboursé sous huitaine. You will have to pay (it) me back within a
week.
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77
3.7 Stressed pronouns
Stressed (or ‘disjunctive’) pronouns are those used after prepositions, as in ‘We went in
after them’ or for the purposes of emphasis, as in ‘I haven’t a clue, me’.
First person singular
moi me
Second person singular
toi you
Third person singular
lui him
elle her
soi oneself
First person plural
nous us
Second person plural
vous you
Third person plural
eux them
elles them
Table 3 Stressed pronouns
KEY POINTS
Typically, these pronouns in French follow prepositions:
Elle était debout devant lui. She was standing in front of him.
Ils ont couru après elle sans succès. They ran after her in vain.
They are used for emphasis:
Lui, il n’a aucune idée de quoi faire. He’s no idea what to do.
They are frequently used after c’est, often with a sense of possession:
C’est à vous, cette voiture ? Is that car yours?
C’est lui le coupable. He’s the culprit.
Quand tu t’en iras, c’est moi
qui
organiserai la collecte.
When you go it’ll be me who’ll organize the
collection.
They can stand alone:
Qui est-ce qui a gagné ? Lui. Who’s won? Him. / He has.
Notes
Stressed pronouns are used:
in comparisons:
Il est plus doué que moi. He’s cleverer than I [am].
for contrast:
Toi , tu prépares le repas et moi je fais la
vaisselle.
You get the meal and I’ll wash up.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
78
after positive imperatives:
Donnez-le-moi. Give it to me. (See 10.1.1.)
with même, seul, pas, non plus and aussi:
Lui seul connaît la solution. He alone knows the solution.
Êtes-vous déjà allés au Kenya ? Pas moi ! Have you already been to Kenya? Not me!
Moi aussi je veux y aller. I’d like to go there too.
– Je n’aime pas la nouvelle Renault. ‘I don’t like the new Renault.’
– Moi non plus. ‘Neither do I.’
3.7.1 soi
Soi is the stressed pronoun equivalent of on, referring to ‘people’, ‘oneself’:
Il est si bon comédien que dans ses lms on rit et
on pleure malgré soi.
He’s such a good actor that in his lms one
laughs and cries despite oneself.
On n’est jamais si bien servi que par soi-même. If you want something done, you’d better do
it yourself.
On garde cela pour soi-même. One keeps that to oneself.
À minuit, chacun rentra chez soi. At midnight, everyone went home.
3.8 Coordination of personal pronouns
Subject pronouns
When linked by the coordinating conjunctions et, ou and ni the second pronoun
may be omitted:
Je sors de la maison et (je) prends le bus à 8
heures du matin.
I leave the house and catch the bus at 8 am.
In compound tenses the auxiliary verb is omitted:
Ils ont bu et chanté pour son anniversaire. They drank and sang for his birthday.
Object pronouns
When linked by the coordinating conjunctions et, ou and ni the second pronoun is
normally repeated:
Georges m’a appelé ce matin et m’a dit qu’il ne
viendrait pas.
Georges called me this morning and told me
that he wouldn’t come.
Stressed pronouns
When two or more pronouns linked by et or ou are the subject of the verb, stressed
pronouns are used. Note that in this case subject pronouns are used in English:
Toi et moi allons voyager ensemble demain. You and I are going to travel together
tomorrow.
Lui et moi assisterons à la réunion de famille. He and I will go to the family reunion.
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3.9 Demonstrative pronouns
We use demonstrative pronouns ‘this one, these ones’ and ‘that one, those ones’ when we
wish to point to a particular thing, person or concept: ‘That idea is better than this one’,
‘These shoes are trendier than those (ones).’
KEY POINTS
The demonstrative pronouns celui, celle, ceux and celles are the equivalent of ‘the one(s)’.
Demonstrative pronouns agree in gender and number with the noun they stand for.
The distinction in English between ‘this one’ and ‘that one’ is made by adding -ci or -là
respectively to the pronoun: celui-ci, celle-là, etc.
masculine singular
celui the one celui-ci this one celui- là that one
feminine singular
celle the one celle-ci this one celle-là that one
masculine plural
ceux the ones ceux-ci these ones ceux-là those ones
feminine plural
celles the ones celles-ci these ones celles-là those ones
Table 4 Demonstrative pronouns
Note
ce / c’, cela, ceci and ça are demonstrative pronouns which do not stand for speci c
nouns. They refer to either general states of affairs or actions, or are simply impersonal.
– Tu voudrais aller au cinema ? ‘Would you like to go to the cinema?’
– Ce serait avec plaisir. ‘That would be a pleasure.’ (The fact of going
to the cinema would be a pleasure.)
C’est dommage. It’s a pity. (Here c’ is impersonal; like ‘it’ in
English, c’ refers to no speci c noun or
idea.)
Ça va ? All right / OK?
3.9.1 Use of demonstrative pronouns in relative clauses
The simple demonstrative pronoun cannot stand on its own. Typically, it is used to
introduce relative clauses, celui qui / celle que etc. (see 14.4).
Levez la main ceux qui savent qui a gagné la
bataille d’Azincourt.
Raise your hands those who know who won
the battle of Agincourt.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
80
3.9.2 Use of ce, cela, ceci, ça
The pronouns ce, cela, ceci and ça are neutral. Ça is more colloquial.
Il ment, cela se lit sur son visage ! He’s lying; you can see that on his face.
Ceci n’est pas pour lui déplaire ! This suits him well.
Pour ce
faire, il faudrait parler chinois
couramment.
To do that you should be be
uent in
Chinese.
Ça va faire trois ans qu’il n’est pas retourné
dans son pays.
He hasn’t been back to his country for three
years.
Note
Ça is frequently used instead of il colloquially (see 3.1.5).
3.10 Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns indicate possession or show a relationship between the speaker and
a thing, a person or an idea: ‘Is that drink mine or yours?’ ‘The idea was hers.’
KEY POINTS
Possessive pronouns agree in number and gender with the thing possessed:
Mon père habite Rouen. Où habite le vôtre ? My father lives in Rouen. Where does yours
live?
– Où sont mes lunettes de soleil ? ‘Where are my sunglasses?’
– Les tiennes sont dans la voiture, avec
les
miennes.
‘Yours are in the car with mine.’
Ma femme et la tienne se connaissent depuis
longtemps.
My wife and yours have known each other
for a long time.
Une maison comme la leur, cela doit coûter
cher, non ?
A house like theirs must cost a lot, mustn’t
it?
Masc.
singular
Fem.
singular
Masc.
plural
Fem. plural
First person singular
le mien la mienne les miens les miennes mine
Second person singular
le tien la tienne les tiens les tiennes yours
Third person singular
le sien la sienne les siens les siennes his, hers
First person plural
le nôtre la nôtre les nôtres les nôtres ours
Second person plural
le vôtre la vôtre les vôtres les vôtres yours
Third person plural
le leur la leur les leurs les leurs theirs
Table 5 Possessive pronouns
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81
Note
The possessive pronouns le / la nôtre and le / la vôtre are distinguished from the
possessive adjectives notre and votre by the de nite article and a circum ex accent on
the letter o.
3.10.1 À plus a stressed pronoun indicating possession
The idea of possession may also be expressed by adding à plus a stressed pronoun to the
thing possessed.
C’est à lui. It’s his.
Ces pommes ne sont pas à vous, cher voisin !
Elles dépassent la clôture, elles sont
légalement à nous.
Those apples are not yours, dear neighbour!
They are on the other side of the hedge
and so they are legally ours.
3.11 Inde nite pronouns
Inde nite pronouns are words that do not refer to a speci c person or thing. In ‘You can
ask anyone you like; they are all helpful here’, ‘anyone’ and ‘all’ are inde nite pronouns.
KEY POINTS
As in English, inde nite pronouns refer to non-speci c persons or things
Inde nites may be positive, e.g. quelqu’un, tous, plusieurs, or negative, e.g. nul, personne,
aucun, rien (see Chapter 7)
The principal inde nite pronouns in French are:
aucun any, none
l’(les) autre(s) the other one(s)
le (la) (les) même(s) the same
n’importe qui no matter who
n’importe quoi anything
nul nobody
personne nobody
plusieurs several
quelque chose something
quelqu’un someone
qui que ce soit whoever
quiconque anyone
quoi que ce soit anything
rien nothing
tel(le)(s) some
tous all
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
82
tout le monde everyone
tout everything
un one
Tu as vu les joueurs ! Plusieurs ont été blessés
pendant le match.
Did you see the players! Several were injured
during the match.
Tout est bien qui nit bien. All’s well that ends well.
J’ai perdu mon parapluie. Est-ce que quelqu’un
peut m’en prêter un
?
I’ve lost my umbrella. Can someone lend me
one?
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83
Pronouns in context
Nos enfants, l’électronique et l’informatique
Aujourd’hui, les jeunes baignent dans l’informatique. Dès la prime enfance on leur
offre un ordinateur portable, puis il leur faut un téléphone portable et très vite ils
ne jurent que par lui. Les textos, ils les composent 10 fois plus vite que vous. Le tout
dernier modèle, ils en rêvent, et quand ils l’ont, ils ne manquent pas une occasion
pour le comparer avec celui du copain. Même chose avec les ordinateurs portables :
– Le mien a un disque dur d’un téraoctet.
– Oui mais le tien n’a pas de carte graphique HD.
– Pour moi ce n’est pas ça qui compte. Mon ordi, je le veux rapide, mince, léger et
avec beaucoup de mémoire. Je télécharge des fi lms et je les regarde dans le train, le
bus, partout. Ça me divertit. Si tu veux, viens chez moi, je te montrerai.
– Toi, ce qui te plaît c’est le cinéma, moi, ce sont les jeux. J’en ai des dizaines. J’y
passe des heures entières. Si tu veux tu peux jouer avec moi !
Les jeunes deviennent inaccessibles. Certains passent des journées sur la toile. Que
font-ils ? Qui est derrière l’écran ? On voudrait les mettre en garde, mais ils se rient
de nous. Ajoutez à cela qu’ils passent les weekends et les vacances entre copains. Et
de peur que vous ne les contrôliez, ils ne vous acceptent même pas comme amis sur
Facebook.
On a vraiment l’impression qu’ils cherchent à se réfugier dans un monde virtuel.
Pourtant, la toile est loin d’être un havre de paix. La violence de certains messages
échangés est bien réelle et celui ou celle qui la subit vit un enfer.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
84
Subject
on leur offre un ordinateur portable; Si tu veux tu peux [3.1]
Direct object
quand ils l’ont; ils ne vous acceptent; Mon ordi, je le veux rapide,
mince, léger; celui ou celle qui la subit [3.2]
Indirect object
on leur offre un ordinateur portable; je te montrerai; ce qui te plaît
[3.2]
y
J’y passe des heures entières[3.3]
en
ils en rêvent; J’en ai des dizaines [3.4]
Re exive
se réfugier dans un monde virtuel [3.5]
Stressed
ils ne jurent que par lui; viens chez moi; Toi, ce qui te plait, c’est le
cinéma [3.7]
Impersonal
il leur faut un téléphone portable [3.1.5]
Neutral
Ça me divertit; Ajoutez à cela [3.9.2]
Demonstrative
celui du copain; celui ou celle qui la subit [3.9]
Possessive
Le mien a un disque dur; mais le tien n’a pas de carte graphique
HD. [3.10]
Inde nite
Certains passent des journées sur la toile. [3.11]
PRONOUNS
PRONOUNS
85
Exercises
1 Replace the words underlined with personal pronouns:
1. Une enfant joue sur la plage.
2. Ses parents surveillent l’enfant.
3. De temps en temps les parents jouent avec l’enfant.
4. La famille passe l’été sur cette plage. La famille part de la plage à l’automne.
5. Les parents ont offert à l’enfant un petit bateau gon able.
6. Les parents montrent à l’enfant le bateau.
7. Le père fait monter l’enfant sur le bateau.
8. L’enfant ne veut pas garder ses sandales.
9. « Donne tes sandales à ta sœur », disent les parents.
10. L’enfant ôte ses sandales. Puis l’enfant tend ses sandales à ses parents.
2 Fill the blanks with pronouns that correspond to the nouns in square
brackets:
1. [À William et Isabelle] elle a offert un beau livre.
2. Dans les poches, [à Paul] il ne restait que 3 euros.
3. [À ses amies] il a réservé une surprise.
4. [De France] il a rapporté d’excellents souvenirs.
5. [Des encouragements] il a vraiment besoin.
6. [À Londres] il va tous les jours.
7. [Ses enfants] on aide habituellement.
8. [À ses enfants] on ne ment pas en principe.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
86
9. [Les faits], on connaît.
10. [Eux-mêmes], ils servent de cet outil sophistiqué.
3 Fill the blanks with a suitable stressed pronoun:
1. Et , comment allez-vous ?
2. , je vais bien, je pars pour l’Afrique.
3. Ma cousine, , n’est jamais allée en Afrique.
4. Mon cousin, , ira au printemps prochain.
5. , nous y sommes allés trois fois.
6. , ils vont partir pour l’Irlande demain.
7. , elles y sont déjà allées.
8. Et , tu restes là ?
9. Oh, , je ne sais pas !
10. Allez, je t’emmène, accompagne- !
4 Fill the blanks with a suitable possessive pronoun:
1. J’ai perdu mon parapluie, peux-tu me prêter ?
2. Il ne connaît pas ma famille, je ne connais pas
3. La famille Martin et moi partageons le même parking. Ma voiture est à côté de
4. Nous avons nos problèmes, ils ont
5. Toi tu t’occupes de tes devoirs et lui s’occupe
6. Vous ne savez rien de mes études, et je ne sais rien
7. Je vais chercher mes affaires et il va chercher
PRONOUNS
PRONOUNS
87
8. Il a payé sa part, nous devons aussi payer
9. Hier tu as célébré ton anniversaire, aujourd’hui je célèbre
10. Je lui ai fait visiter mon appartement, elle m’a fait visiter
5 Change the masculine pronoun to the feminine one, taking care to make
any consequential changes:
1. Cet homme, je le vois tous les jours.
2. Quand je passe devant lui, il ne me voit pas.
3. Une fois je l’ai salué.
4. « Vous me connaissez ? » me dit-il.
5. Je vous ai vu plusieurs fois avec vos chiens.
6. Vous les promenez souvent.
7. Je leur ai donné un sucre une fois.
8. Je n’ai pas peur d’eux.
9. Ils sont jeunes, ils se poursuivent toujours.
10. « Oui, nous nous amusons bien tous les trois. »
88
ADJECTIVES 4
An adjective is a word that gives more information about a noun or a pronoun.
When we say ‘John has a computer’, we communicate no information about the
computer except that John possesses it. When we place an adjective before ‘computer’,
e.g. ‘John has a new computer’, or after it, e.g. ‘John’s computer is new’, we describe the
computer further.
In English, adjectives are usually placed either before the noun or separate from it, as the
complement of the verb. The English term for the former type of adjective is ‘attributive’
and the latter ‘predicative’.
ADJECTIVES
ADJECTIVES
89
KEY POINTS
In French, adjectives are generally used in the same way as in English.
They are either:
attributive (épithète in French), i.e., next to the noun they describe:
Une usine désaffectée a disused factory
une Rolls Royce blanche a white Rolls-Royce
or
predicative (attribut in French), i.e., separated from the noun by a verb of ‘state’, like être
or sembler:
L’usine semble désaffectée. The factory appears disused.
La Rolls Royce est blanche. The Rolls-Royce is white.
There are three major differences between adjectives in French and English:
Adjectives agree with the noun or pronoun in gender:
un bulletin blanc a blank vote [masculine singular]
une maison blanche a white house [feminine singular]
une machine volante a ying machine [feminine singular]
Les musées sont ouverts le dimanche. The museums are open on Sundays.
[masculine plural]
Les écoles sont fermées le samedi. Schools are closed on Saturdays. [feminine
plural]
Adjectives agree with the noun or pronoun in number:
une copie blanche a blank script [feminine singular]
des cahiers de textes quadrillés exercise books with squared paper
[feminine plural]
Ils ont laissé toutes les fenêtres ouvertes. They left all the windows open. [feminine
plural]
Adjectives are normally placed after the noun, with the exception of a number of
common adjectives which precede it:
un disque dur a hard disk
But
un gros ordinateur a large computer
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
90
4.1 The position of adjectives
4.1.1 Position after the noun
The following adjectives are normally placed after the noun:
Long adjectives (of more than three syllables) qualifying a short noun:
une vue bucolique a bucolic view
un site enchanteur an enchanting site
Adjectives followed by a complement or modi ed by a long adverb (more than one
syllable):
un bateau vieux de 30 ans a thirty-year-old boat
une lle vraiment jolie a really pretty girl
Adjectives of colour or geometrical form:
une cour carrée a square courtyard
des murs blancs white walls
une route sinueuse a winding route
Note
In gurative use, or in poetry, colour adjectives can be placed before the noun:
de noirs desseins dark designs
les vertes collines du Maine the green hills of Maine
Adjectives with an idea of time:
les générations futures future generations
les pages suivantes the following pages
Adjectives which are descriptive, or which classify:
expressing a physical quality:
un sentier sablonneux a sandy path
un divan confortable a comfortable divan
adjectives denoting nationality or regional identity:
la cuisine française French cuisine
une crème anglaise thin custard
un danseur espagnol a Spanish dancer
un écrivain breton a writer from Brittany
ADJECTIVES
ADJECTIVES
91
adjectives relating to social, religious, historical, geographical, administrative and
technical matters:
un syndicat réformateur a reforming trade union
l’Église catholique the Catholic Church
un décret royal a royal decree
le plissement alpin the Alpine fold mountains
un formulaire administratif an administrative form
le droit romain Roman law
un moteur électrique an electric motor
adjectives which describe a style, a look, a taste:
une église gothique a Gothic church
un immeuble moderne a modern building
un café amer a bitter coffee
un air triste a sad appearance
Adjectives derived from proper nouns or indicating an af liation:
une tragédie shakespearienne a Shakespearian tragedy
un parti gaulliste a Gaullist party
Adjectives derived from past participles or forms of the verb ending in -ant:
un pré euri a meadow full of owers
un jeu amusant an amusing game
un ordinateur performant a high-performance computer
un livre apprécié a much-loved book
4.1.2 Position before the noun
A few short and common adjectives are generally placed before the noun:
autre another haut high
beau beautiful joli pretty
bon good long long
bref brief mauvais bad, evil
double double nouveau new
faux false petit small
grand large vaste vast
gros fat vieux old
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
92
un beau visage a beautiful face
une jolie maison a pretty house
une longue route a long journey
un gros orage a big storm
Adjectives expressing a moral quality:
C’est une gentille lle. She’s a nice girl.
un vilain garçon a naughty boy
Adjectives which qualify a proper noun:
le légendaire Docteur Mabuse the legendary Doctor Mabuse
le célèbre professeur Tournesol the famous Professor Calculus (in Tintin)
Cardinal and ordinal numbers:
les sept jours de la semaine the seven days of the week
cent mille euros a hundred thousand euros
le vingtième siècle the twentieth century
le troisième jour the third day
4.1.3 Adjectives which have a different meaning according to
whether they are before or after the noun
The following adjectives change their meaning according to their position. Where the
adjective precedes the noun its meaning is often gurative, and has moral rather than
descriptive connotations.
ancien (old / former)
un athlète ancien an old athlete
un ancien athlète a former athlete
brave (nice / courageous)
un soldat brave a courageous soldier
un brave homme a nice man
certain (sure / certain)
une in uence certaine a real in uence
une certaine in uence a certain in uence
cher (expensive / dear)
une voiture chère an expensive car
mon cher ami my dear friend
ADJECTIVES
ADJECTIVES
93
curieux (inquisitive / strange)
un enfant curieux an inquisitive child
de curieuses façons strange ways
dur (hard, dif cult, strenuous)
un disque dur a hard disk
un dur labeur a strenuous job
grand (big / great)
un homme grand a tall/big man
un grand homme a great man (i.e., famous)
gris (grey, dull / unhappy)
la matière grise grey matter
faire grise mine to be none too pleased
honnête (honest [doesn’t cheat] / respectable, decent)
un commerçant honnête an honest shopkeeper
une honnête proposition a decent proposal
juste (correct, not wrong / legitimate, righteous)
une réponse juste a correct answer
une juste colère a legitimate anger
méchant (wicked / terri c)
un chien méchant a vicious dog
une méchante pluie heavy rain
même (same / very)
la même chose the same thing
le jour même the very day
nul (worthless / none)
un devoir nul a worthless piece of homework
nul doute (although aucun doute is more common) no
doubt
pâle (pale / insigni cant)
un teint pâle a pale complexion
une pâle imitation a pale imitation
parfait (perfect / total, complete)
un travail parfait a perfect job
un parfait gentleman a complete gentleman
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
94
pauvre (poor)
un homme pauvre a poor man (without money)
un pauvre homme a poor man (causing pity but can be rich)
propre (clean / own)
une chambre propre a clean room
ma propre chambre my own room
pur (pure / total, sheer)
de l’alcool pur pure alcohol
de la pure méchanceté sheer wickedness
riche (wealthy / excellent)
un pays riche a rich country
une riche idée an excellent idea
sacré (holy / a hell of a … )
un lieu sacré a holy place
un sacré courage ! a hell of a brave act
sale (dirty / nasty)
un endroit sale a dirty place
un sale caractère a nasty character
seul (lonely / only)
une femme seule a lonely woman
un seul homme one man (only)
sévère (strict, rigorous / serious)
un professeur sévère a strict teacher
une sévère défaite a heavy defeat
simple (simple, easy / mere, ordinary)
une question simple an easy (straightforward) question
une simple question a mere question
sombre (dark / gloomy)
un couloir sombre a dark corridor
un sombre avenir a gloomy future
triste (sad / sorry, dreadful)
un enfant triste a sad child
un triste état a dreadful state
ADJECTIVES
ADJECTIVES
95
vrai (true / real, genuine)
une histoire vraie a true story
de vrais diamants genuine diamonds
4.1.4 Adjectives which accompany numbers
Several adjectives which accompany a number are placed after that number, unlike in
English. These are: premier ( rst), dernier (last), autre (another), prochains (next) and mêmes
(same).
les trois derniers jours the last three days
les cinq dernières minutes the last ve minutes
les quatre prochains jours the next four days
les deux autres dimanches the other two Sundays
4.2 The feminine of adjectives
4.2.1 Adjectives which add -e to form the feminine
As with nouns, the feminine of adjectives is usually formed by adding -e to the
masculine:
Masculine Feminine
cru crue raw
joli jolie pretty
national nationale national
poli polie polite
régional régionale regional
vrai vraie true
In most cases, the addition of the -e causes the nal consonant (that appears in the
written form of the word) to be pronounced:
étonnant étonnante surprising
fort forte strong
grand grande big
gris grise grey
inclus incluse inclusive
petit petite little
persan persane Persian
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
96
Note
The adjectives grand and franc, when used in compound nouns in certain set expressions,
are invariable in the feminine singular: une grand-mère but des grands-mères (grandmother[s]).
In these expressions:
grand does not mean ‘big’ or ‘tall’ in physical stature (a grandmother is not necessarily
‘big’).
grand is linked to a word by a hyphen to create a compound word. The most frequent
of these words are:
grand-maman (grandma)
grand-mère (grandmother)
grand-route / grand-rue (main / high street)
grand-tante (great-aunt)
grand-vergue (main yard)
grand-voile (mainsail)
(ne) pas grand-chose (not much, not a lot)
à grand-peine (with great dif culty)
avoir grand-peur (to be fear-stricken)
Otherwise, grand is not followed by a hyphen and agrees with its noun: grande banlieue
(outer suburbs); grandes vacances (summer [i.e. long] holidays); Grande Bretagne (big
compared with Bretagne [Brittany]); Grande Ourse (Great Bear); grande surface (hypermarket;
large surface).
4.2.2 Adjectives which are invariable in the masculine and feminine
Adjectives which end in -e are the same in the masculine and feminine:
habile habile clever
riche riche rich
sale sale dirty
sincère sincère sincere
utile utile useful
Exceptions
maître maîtresse master, main
traître traîtresse treacherous
une poutre maîtresse a main beam
une accalmie traîtresse a deceptive lull
ADJECTIVES
ADJECTIVES
97
Note
drôle (funny), ivrogne (drunk), pauvre (poor), suisse (Swiss) are the same in the feminine: une
histoire drôle (a funny story), une montre suisse (a Swiss watch), but nouns formed from
them have a feminine form: une drôlesse (hussy), une Suissesse (Swiss woman).
4.2.3 Adjectives ending in -er
Adjectives ending in -er form the feminine in -ère:
Masculine Feminine
cher chère dear
entier entière whole
er ère proud
léger légère light
printanier printanière spring(like)
Note
The masculine forms of amer (bitter) and e r are pronounced the same as the feminine
amère [amåR] and ère [fjåR].
4.2.4 Adjectives ending in -el, -eil, gentil and nul
Adjectives ending in -el, -eil, gentil and nul double the nal l in the feminine:
habituel habituelle habitual
nul nulle no, useless
pareil pareille same
4.2.5 Adjectives ending in -et
Adjectives ending in -et double the t before the nal -e of the feminine:
muet muette dumb
net nette clear, net
uet uette slight, frail
violet violette violet, purple
propret proprette neat and tidy
Exceptions
The following adjectives form the feminine in -ète:
complet complète complete
concret concrète concrete
discret discrète discreet
inquiet inquiète worried
secret secrète secret
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
98
Adjectives ending in -at and -ot do not double the nal t:
délicat délicate delicate
idiot idiote idiotic
bigot bigote bigoted
Exceptions
boulot boulotte tubby
pâlot pâlotte rather pale
sot sotte foolish
vieillot vieillotte quaint
4.2.6 Adjectives ending in -f
Adjectives ending in -f form the feminine in -ve:
vif vive bright, keen
collectif collective collective
Note
bref (brief) adds a grave accent in the feminine: brève
4.2.7 Adjectives ending in -en and -on
Adjectives ending in -en and -on double the nal n:
ancien ancienne old
bon bonne good
européen européenne European
mignon mignonne pretty
Exception
mormon mormone Mormon
Note
lapon (Lapp), letton (Latvian), nippon (Japanese) have two feminine forms: lapone / laponne;
lettone / lettonne; nippone / nipponne.
ADJECTIVES
ADJECTIVES
99
4.2.8 Adjectives ending in -an, -in, -ain, -ein, -un
Adjectives ending in -an, -in, -ain, -ein, -un add -e:
voisin voisine neighbouring
plein pleine full
anglican anglicane Anglican
commun commune common
Exceptions
paysan (peasant) doubles the nal n: paysanne.
bénin (benign, minor) and malin (malignant, clever) form the feminine in -gne : bénigne,
maligne.
4.2.9 Adjectives ending in -c
Adjectives ending in -c form the feminine in -que:
Masculine Feminine
caduc caduque obsolete
public publique public
turc turque Turkish
Exceptions
blanc blanche white
franc franche frank, honest
sec sèche dry
Notes
grec (Greek) becomes grecque in the feminine.
laïque (lay / secular) is both masculine and feminine.
4.2.10 Adjectives ending in -g
Adjectives ending in -g form the feminine in -gue:
long longue long
oblong oblongue oblong
4.2.11 Adjectives ending in -gu
Adjectives ending in -gu form the feminine in -guë or, since 1990, -güe (see Appendix,
pp. 381–92):
aigu aigüe / aiguë high-pitched
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
100
ambigu ambigüe / ambiguë ambiguous
exigu exigüe / exiguë cramped, con ned
4.2.12 Adjectives ending in -x and -s
Adjectives ending in -x and -s form the feminine in -se (pronounced [z]):
clos close (en)closed
danois danoise Danish
français française French
gris grise grey
jaloux jalouse jealous
mauvais mauvaise bad
pluvieux pluvieuse rainy
ras rase short
Exceptions
doux and frais
doux douce sweet
frais fraîche fresh
the following adjectives ending in -s double the nal letter:
bas basse low
gras grasse fat, greasy
gros grosse big, fat
épais épaisse thick
métis métisse mixed-race
las lasse weary
exprès expresse express
the following adjectives ending in -x (faus and rous in old French) form the feminine in
-sse:
faux fausse false
roux rousse red, ginger
vieux (see 4.3).
4.2.13 Adjectives ending in -eur
Adjectives ending in -eur (derived from verbs) form the feminine in -euse:
joueur joueuse playful
rieur rieuse cheerful, laughing
ADJECTIVES
ADJECTIVES
101
Exceptions
pécheur and vengeur
pécheur pécheresse sinner
vengeur vengeresse vengeful
Comparative adjectives ending in -eur form the feminine by adding -e:
meilleur meilleure better
supérieur supérieure upper, superior
majeur majeure main, major
mineur mineure minor
antérieur antérieure previous
inférieur inférieure lower, inferior
ultérieur ultérieure subsequent, ulterior
postérieur postérieure later, posterior
extérieur extérieure outer
vainqueur has no feminine form; for the feminine, victorieuse (masculine victorieux) is
used.
4.2.14 Adjectives ending in -teur (derived from verbs)
Adjectives ending in -teur (derived from verbs) form the feminine in -teuse or -trice:
If you can make a present participle by changing -teur to -tant, the feminine ends
in -teuse.
Verb Present
participle
Adjective
atter attant
atteur atteuse
attering
sauter sautant
sauteur sauteuse
jumping
une proposition atteuse a attering proposal
une scie sauteuse a jigsaw puzzle
If you cannot make a present participle by changing -teur to -tant, the feminine
ends in -trice:
Verb Present
participle
Adjective
protéger protégeant
protecteur protectrice
protective
corrompre corrompant
corrupteur corruptrice
corrupting
perturber perturbant
perturbateur perturbatrice
disruptive
sauver sauvant
salvateur salvatrice
saving
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
102
une paroi protectrice a protective wall
une intention corruptrice an intention to corrupt
une action perturbatrice a disruptive action
4.2.15 Special cases
coi coite speechless
favori favorite favourite
mes lectures favorites my favourite reading
rigolo rigolote funny
une histoire rigolote a funny story
tiers tierce third
une tierce personne a third party
andalou andalouse Andalusian
la ville andalouse de Séville the Andalusian town of Seville
esquimau esquimaude Eskimo
une famille esquimaude an Eskimo family
the past participles dissous (dissolved) and absous (absolved), when used as adjectives,
become dissoute, absoute respectively in the feminine.
pauvre (poor) and nègre (black) do not have a separate feminine form as adjectives, but
the feminine nouns derived from them have a separate form: pauvresse (pauper),
négresse (negress).
hébreux (Hebrew) becomes hébraïque in the feminine when describing things: l’histoire
hébraïque (Hebrew history). When referring to people, israélite or juif / juive is used.
4.2.16 Adjectives that are invariable in the feminine
A few adjectives such as chic (smart, chic), bougon (grumpy), fat (conceited), grognon
(bad-tempered), kaki (khaki), snob (snobbish) are invariable in the feminine.
une personne chic a smart person
une voisine grognon a bad-tempered neighbour
4.2.17 Adjectives without a feminine form
A few adjectives, such as aquilin (aquiline), benêt (simple-minded), hongre (gelded), pers
(blue-green) have no feminine form and can only qualify masculine nouns.
un nez aquilin an aquiline nose
des yeux pers blue-green eyes
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103
un cheval hongre a gelded horse
4.2.18 An adjective without a masculine form
Bée (gaping) has no masculine form:
être bouche bée de surprise to be open-mouthed with surprise
4.3 Adjectives with a second masculine form
A number of adjectives have a second masculine form, which is used before a noun
beginning with a vowel or a silent h. The feminine derives from the old masculine form.
Masculine
singular before
a consonant
Masculine
singular before
a vowel or
silent h
Masculine
plural
Feminine
singular
Feminine
plural
beau (beautiful) bel beaux belle belles
fou (mad) fol fous folle folles
mou (soft) mol mous molle molles
nouveau (new) nouvel nouveaux nouvelle nouvelles
vieux (old) vieil vieux vieille vieilles
un vieil édi ce an old building
un édi ce vieux an old building (i.e. decrepit)
de vieux édi
ces old buildings
un homme nouveau a new man (changed character)
un nouvel homme a new man (another man)
de nouveaux hommes new men
un fol amour (or un amour fou) crazy love
4.4 The plural of adjectives
4.4.1 Agreement
An adjective takes the masculine plural form when:
all the nouns it quali es are masculine
at least one of the nouns it quali es is masculine
La porte, la fenêtre et le portail sont ouverts. The door, the window and the gate are open.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
104
Note
When this happens, it is preferable to place the masculine noun nearest to the adjective:
une viande et des légumes bien cuits (lit. a well-cooked piece of meat and well-cooked
vegetables) rather than des légumes et une viande bien cuits.
An adjective takes the feminine pural if all the nouns it quali es are feminine:
La fenêtre et la porte sont ouvertes. The window and the door are open.
Ma mère et ma sœur sont petites. My mother and sister are small.
4.4.2 Formation of the plural
In general adjectives, like nouns, form the plural by adding -s to the singular. This is
the case with all feminine adjectives.
Singular Plural
un talon haut des talons hauts high heel(s)
une portière bleue des portières bleues blue door(s)
Note
The nal -s is not pronounced, except where there is liaison [z]:
des murs jaunes [z] et des rideaux bleus yellow walls and blue curtains
Masculine adjectives ending in -s or -x.
These adjectives are invariable in the plural:
un enfant heureux des enfants heureux a happy child / happy children
un enfant reclus des enfants reclus a reclusive child / reclusive
children
un papier gris des papiers gris a grey piece of paper / grey
pieces of paper
Masculine adjectives ending in -eau.
These adjectives add -x in the plural:
beau beaux beautiful
jumeau jumeaux twin
nouveau nouveaux new
Tourangeau Tourangeaux inhabitant of Tours
de vrais jumeaux identical twins
de nouveaux textes de loi new bills
ADJECTIVES
ADJECTIVES
105
Notes
esquimau (Eskimo) and hébreu (Hebrew) also add -x in the plural:
des livres hébreux Hebrew books
des chiens esquimaux huskies
bleu and feu add -s in the plural:
mes feus grands-parents my late grandparents
des yeux bleus blue eyes
But
When feu is placed before a determiner it is invariable:
feu mes oncles my late uncles
Masculine singular adjectives ending in -al become -aux in the plural:
un discours inaugural an inaugural speech
des discours inauguraux inaugural speeches
un palais royal a royal palace
des palais royaux royal palaces
Exceptions
The masculine plural of bancal (rickety), fatal (fatal), natal (native), naval (naval) and
fractal (fractal) add -s in the plural:
des chantiers navals naval dockyards
des tabourets bancals rickety stools
The masculine plural of a number of adjectives, such as nal ( nal), glacial (glacial),
idéal (ideal), pascal (Easter), tribal (tribal), jovial (jolly) and tonal (tonal), ends either in
-als or -aux:
des coups de vent glacials or glaciaux glacial gales
des points nals or naux full stops
The masculine plural of banal is banals in the modern meaning of ‘commonplace’, but
banaux in the old meaning of ‘communal’, in a feudal society.
des textes banals commonplace texts
les moulins banaux communal mills
4.5 Compound adjectives
Adjectives, like nouns, can have compound forms:
sourd-muet deaf and dumb
aigre-doux bitter-sweet
(See 1.2.16.)
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
106
If the compound adjective includes two adjectives, they both agree in gender and
number:
des prunes aigres-douces bitter-sweet plums
Hier, j’ai vu des étudiants ivres-morts. I saw some students who were dead-drunk
yesterday.
C’est une école pour lles sourdes-muettes. It’s a school for deaf and dumb girls.
If the compound adjective includes an adjective and an invariable element, only the
adjective agrees:
des théories anglo-saxonnes Anglo-Saxon theories
Les relations franco-américaines s’améliorent. Franco-German relations are improving.
Molière a écrit des pièces tragi-comiques. Molière wrote tragicomedies.
4.6 Agreement of adjectives with on
Adjectives related to on are usually masculine singular. However, increasingly on:
replaces nous in both colloquial French and standard French
represents a woman or several people.
In these two cases, the adjective agrees with the person it represents. It can therefore be
in the masculine or feminine or the singular or plural according to the gender and
number of the person(s).
On est toutes arrivées en même temps. We all arrived at the same time.
Alors, ma chère, on est pressée ? Well now, dear, are you in a hurry?
On était serrés comme des sardines. We were packed tight like sardines.
4.7 Agreement of adjectives according to meaning
4.7.1 Two nouns linked by et or ou
If the adjective quali es two or more nouns it is plural:
une télévision et un ordinateur neufs a new television and computer
une chemise ou un pull vieux an old shirt or (an old) sweater
If the adjective quali es one of the nouns it agrees with the noun that is nearest:
Un ordinateur ou une télévision neuve a computer or a new television (only the
televison is new)
ADJECTIVES
ADJECTIVES
107
At times agreement is obvious:
le père et la lle cadette the father and the youngest daughter
Au petit déjeuner il prend des céréales ou
un œuf brouillé.
He has cereal or scrambled egg for breakfast.
Note
If the two nouns are synonymous or juxtaposed, the adjective is in the singular:
un courage, une bravoure exemplaire an exemplary courage, bravery
4.7.2 Two nouns linked by de
The adjective agrees with the noun it quali es:
Ces cables de TGV sont torsadés. Those TGV cables are twisted.
ces lignes de TGV bleu those lines for the blue TGV
4.8 Adjectives of colour
In general straightforward adjectives of colour agree with the noun in gender and
number:
une cravate grise a grey tie
des yeux verts green eyes
4.8.1 Adjectives of colour which derive from nouns
These are usually invariable (the word couleur is understood):
des portes marron (des portes de la couleur
du marron)
brown doors
des couvertures orange orange blankets
une chemise crème a cream shirt
des taches olive et citron olive and lemon stains
des yeux noisette light-brown eyes
Exceptions
rose (pink), mauve (mauve), pourpre (purple), écarlate (scarlet) act like normal adjectives:
des rubans roses et des rideaux mauves pink ribbons and mauve curtains
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
108
4.8.2 châtain
châtain often adds -s in the masculine plural:
des cheveux châtains nut-brown hair
In the feminine it is sometimes variable:
Des moustaches châtaines or des moustaches
châtain
brown whiskers
4.8.3 Compound adjectives of colour
Compound adjectives of colour are invariable if they consist of two different adjectives
or a colour adjective followed by a complement:
des yeux vert clair light green eyes
des vestes bleu marine navy blue jackets
des chemises jaune citron lemon yellow shirts
des statues vert de gris verdigris statues
Where two or more adjectives of different colours are used, they are linked by a
conjunction or juxtaposed and are usually invariable:
des papillons rouge et blanc red and white butter ies
des drapeaux bleu, blanc, rouge blue, white, red ags
4.9 Foreign borrowings
4.9.1 ‘Compound’ adjectives containing pre xes
In ‘compound’ adjectives which combine a pre x and an adjective, such as hémi-, semi-,
tragi-, pseudo-, franco-, anglo-, néo-, the pre x is invariable.
des origines anglo-saxonnes Anglo-Saxon origins
les plages néo-calédoniennes New Caledonian beaches
des pièces tragi-comiques tragi-comic plays
les relations franco-allemandes Franco-German relations
4.9.2 Other borrowings
Borrowings that have not been gallicized are usually invariable:
des cheveux auburn auburn hair
des allures sexy sexy looks
des livres sterling pounds sterling
des gens cool cool people
ADJECTIVES
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109
4.9.3 Minimum, maximum and optimum
Le Bon usage (M. Grevisse and A. Goosse, 14th edition, 2010 [p. 708]) advises that these
words may vary in number, by adding -s for the plural, but not in gender: des prix
minimums (minimum prices) but une température maximum (a maximum temperature).
4.10 Special cases
4.10.1 Invariable words used as adjectives
When words that are not adjectives, such as Empire, bien and famille, have an adjectival
function, they are invariable.
des bureaux Empire Empire-style [Napoleon III] desks
des gens bien good people
des jeunes pas trop famille young people who don’t believe in family
values
4.10.2 Adjectives employed as nouns
Adjectives are commonly used as nouns by placing an article in front of them:
les riches et les pauvres the rich and the poor
des clairs-obscurs chiaroscuros
4.10.3 Adjectives employed as adverbs
When adjectives are used as adverbs they do not agree with a noun:
Ils parlent fort. They are speaking loudly.
Elle sent bon. She feels well.
Vous voyez clair. You see clearly.
(See Chapter 6.)
4.10.4 Shortened adjectives
Shortened adjectives and abbreviations used adjectivally are invariable:
des gens sympa friendly / nice people
des gens BCBG (Bon Chic, Bon Genre) (ironic) respectable, upper middle-class
people
des gens parano paranoid people
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
110
4.11 Adjectival expressions
The expression seul à seul has been invariable in the past:
Je me suis retrouvé seul à seul avec Brigitte. I found myself alone with Brigitte.
but nowadays grammars tend to make this expression agree:
Je me suis retrouvé seul à seule avec Brigitte.
Je me suis retrouvée seule à seul avec Pierre.
Avoir l’air + adjective
Avoir l’air, a verb expressing a state, like paraître, is followed by an adjective which agrees
with the subject:
Ils ont l’air méchants. They look nasty.
Elle a l’air intelligente. She seems intelligent.
When, however, avoir l’air has its full sense of ‘appearance’, i.e., avoir une physionomie, the
adjective agrees with ‘air’:
Ils ont l’air méchant. They have a nasty appearance.
Elle a l’air intelligent. She has an intelligent look.
Demi, semi, mi, nu
Demi (half), semi (half), mi (mid) and nu (naked) are invariable when they precede the
noun, and they are linked to it by a hyphen (see 1.3.17):
des semi-remorques articulated lorries
une demi-heure a half-hour
la mi-saison mid-season
nu-tête bare-headed
nu-pieds barefoot
Nu agrees in gender and number when it is placed after the noun:
la tête nue bare head
les pieds nus bare feet
Demi can be placed after the noun. It is then linked by et and agrees only in gender.
une heure et demie an hour and a half
deux doses et demie two and a half doses
Bon marché and meilleur marché
Bon marché (cheap) and meilleur marché (cheaper) are invariable:
Les maisons sont bon / meilleur marché en
Belgique.
Houses are cheap / cheaper in Belgium.
ADJECTIVES
ADJECTIVES
111
Possible
Possible is invariable after a superlative:
Il souhaite travailler le plus d’heures possible. He hopes to work for the most possible
hours.
le moins d’erreurs possible the least possible mistakes
4.12 Comparison of adjectives
(See also 6.4.)
When making comparisons using adjectives, various adverbs are used to indicate
different degrees of intensity:
aussi … que as … as
plus … que more … than
le plus … the most …
moins … que less … than
le moins … the least
The comparative
Comparisons establish a connection between two elements in three different ways:
comparison of equality
When the two elements are of equal value, aussi … que (as … as) is used:
Le loup est aussi menacé que le rhinocéros. The wolf is as endangered as the rhinoceros.
comparison of superiority
When one component is greater than the other, plus … que (more … than) is used. (For this
type of comparison in English either -er is added to the adjective or ‘more’ precedes it.)
Les pays d’Afrique sont plus chauds que ceux
d’Europe.
African countries are hotter than European
ones.
Le loup est plus menacé que l’éléphant. The wolf is more endangered than the
elephant.
comparison of inferiority
When one element is less than another moins … que (less … than) is used.
L’éléphant est moins menacé que le loup. The elephant is less endangered than the
wolf.
The superlative
The superlative expresses a quality in its greatest possible degree. The superlative can be:
Absolute superlative
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
112
The equality is of the highest degree, without comparison. The adverbs used are très
(very), extrêmement (extremely):
Cet ordinateur est très performant. This computer is very high performance.
The absolute superlative can also be formed by adding the suf x -issime to the adjective:
rarissime (extremely rare), grandissime (tremendous), richissime (fabulously rich).
Relative superlative
The quality of the adjective is of a very high degree or a very low degree when compared
with all others. The adverbs used are le plus … (either adjective + -est or ‘the most’ +
adjective in English) and le moins … (the least).
Elle est la plus douée de sa promotion. She is the most talented person in her
year-group.
Notes
Adjectives like meilleur and pire are already comparatives and cannot therefore be
preceded by plus or moins (*plus meilleur and *plus pire are not possible).
Certain adjectives, such as préféré (favourite), total (total) and entier (whole), cannot be
superlatives because the idea of highest quality is already present in them.
Adjectives like double, triple, parallèle and rectangulaire, as well as aîné (older-est), cadet
(younger-est), principal (principal) and unique (unique) are incompatible with the idea of
degree. *Plus cadet, *plus principal and *plus double are therefore impossible.
Speci c cases
The adjectives bon, mauvais and petit have the irregular comparative forms meilleur, pire
and moindre respectively. Note however that the alternatives plus mauvais / le plus mauvais
and plus petit / le plus petit exist for pire and moindre.
Comparative
bon meilleur, -e, -s, -es …
(que)
Cette fois les résultats étaient
meilleurs.
This time the results were better.
mauvais pire, -s / plus mauvais,
-e, -es … (que)
Il a fait pire que la dernière fois.
He did worse than the last time.
petit plus petit, -e, -s, -es /
moindre, -s … (que)
dans une moindre mesure
to a lesser extent
ADJECTIVES
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113
Superlative
bon le meilleur
la meilleure
les meilleur(e)s
C’est à Lyon qu’on trouve les meilleurs
restaurants.
It’s in Lyons that you nd the best
restaurants.
mauvais le, la, les pire(s) / le, la,
les plus mauvais(e)s
Ce voyage fut la pire/la plus mauvaise
chose qui me soit arrivée.
That journey was the worst thing
to happen to me.
petit le, la, les moindre(s) /
le, la, les plus petit(e)s
C’est la moindre des choses.
It’s the least we can say.
Michel est le plus petit des trois.
Michel is the smallest of the three.
4.13 Verbal adjectives
Verbal adjectives are derived from the present participle of verbs. The present participle
is formed by adding -ant to the stem of the rst person plural of the present indicative.
The verbal adjective and the present participle are similar, but there is often a difference
of spelling between them. A useful way of distinguishing the verbal adjective is by
replacing it with an adjective (see 10.4.3).
Formation
Verb 1st person plural Present participle Verbal adjective
nir Nous niss-ons niss-ant niss-ant(e)s
exceller Nous excell-ons excell-ant excell-ent(e)s
fatiguer Nous fatigu-ons fatigu-ant fatig-ant(e)s
convaincre Nous convainqu-ons convainqu-ant convainc-ant(e)s
briller Nous brill-ons brill-ant brill-ant(e)s
À Polytechnique on trouve des étudiants excellant
en mathémathiques.
At Polytechnique you nd students excelling
in mathematics.
À Polytechnique on trouve d’excellents étudiants. At Polytechnique you nd excellent students.
Verbal adjectives ending in -ent
A number of verbal adjectives end in -ent instead of -ant: excellent (excellent), différent
(different), négligent (negligent), in uent (in uential), équivalent (equivalent):
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
114
des idées convergentes convergent ideas
des parents négligents careless parents
Verbal adjectives of verbs ending in -guer
The verbal adjective ends in -gant, whereas the present participle ends in -guant:
un personnage intrigant a scheming character
Verbal adjectives of verbs ending in -quer
Some verbal adjectives end in -cant, others end in -quant, like the present participle:
paniquer, paniquant(e)(s) (to panic / panicking), communiquer, communicant(e)(s) (to
communicate / communicating):
une scène paniquante a scary scene
Son attitude est provocante. His attitude is provocative.
Notes
The verbal adjective agrees with the noun in gender and number:
une cuisine excellente an excellent cuisine
des femmes exigeantes demanding women
It can be modi ed by an adverb of degree:
Ce travail est plus fatigant que l’autre. This job is more tiring than the other one.
The verbal adjective can always be replaced by another adjective, unlike the present
participle. In L’année suivante, ils iront en Afrique (The following year they will go to
Africa), suivante can be replaced by prochaine : L’année prochaine, ils iront en Afrique.
but
In Ils vécurent à Paris les trois années suivant leur mariage (They lived in Paris for the three
years following their marriage), suivant is a present participle; *les trois années prochaines
leur mariage is not possible.
ADJECTIVES
ADJECTIVES
115
Adjectives in context
LA REMPAILLEUSE
On prit pour arbitre le docteur, vieux médecin parisien retiré aux champs, et on le
pria de donner son avis.
Justement, il n’en avait pas : (…)
« C’est une affaire de tempérament ; quant à moi, j’ai eu connaissance d’une
passion qui dura cinquante-cinq ans sans un jour de répit, et qui ne se termina que
par la mort. »
La marquise battit des mains.
« Est-ce beau cela ! Et quel rêve d’être aimé ainsi ! Quel bonheur de vivre
cinquante-cinq ans tout enveloppé de cette affection acharnée et pénétrante !
Comme il a dû être heureux et bénir la vie celui qu’on adora de la sorte ! »
Le médecin sourit :
« En effet, madame, vous ne vous trompez pas sur ce point, que l’être aimé fut un
homme. Vous le connaissez, c’est M. Chouquet, le pharmacien du bourg. Quant à
elle, la femme, vous l’avez connue aussi, c’est la vieille rempailleuse de chaises qui
venait tous les ans au château. Mais je vais me faire mieux comprendre. »
L’enthousiasme des femmes était tombé ; et leur visage dégoûté disait : « Pouah ! »
comme si l’amour n’eût dû frapper que les êtres fi ns et distingués, seuls dignes de
l’intérêt des gens comme il faut.
Guy de Maupassant, La Rempailleuse,
short story, extract
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
116
Adjective
vieux short adjective in the masculine singular placed before the noun
[4.3]
parisien adjective in the masculine singular denoting regional origin, placed
after the noun [4.1.1]
beau predicative adjective in the masculine singular qualifying cela [Key
points and 4.3]
acharnée adjective in the feminine singular: past participle of the verb
acharner [4.2.1]
pénétrante verbal adjective in the feminine singular derived from the verb
pénétrer [4.13]
heureux predicative adjective in the masculine singular after the verb être
[Key points]
vieille short adjective in the feminine singular placed before the noun;
the feminine form of vieux [4.3]
ns et distingués two masculine plural nouns linked by the conjunction et, agreeing
with the noun êtres [4.4.1]
dignes masculine plural noun placed after the noun [4.1]
ADJECTIVES
ADJECTIVES
117
Exercises
1 Write the correct form of the adjectives in brackets using the following
endings: -te, -que, -lle, -eure, -se, -ille, -s, -e, -ues, -rice, -ve, (-), -ne:
1. Ma voisine est (turc) ou (iranien) , je ne suis pas sûr.
2. C’est ma voisine (favori) . La (meilleur) des voisines.
3. Elle a une (beau) maison, avec des eurs (multicolore) .
4. Elle-même a toujours une mine (radieux) .
5. Elle est directrice d’école, c’est dire si elle est (patient) avec les (petit)
enfants.
6. Elle est (jeune) et pourtant elle n’a pas eu toujours de la chance dans sa
(court) vie.
7. Elle a perdu sa (vieux) grand-mère récemment.
8. Et cela fait cinq (long) années qu’elle est veuve et qu’elle vit (seul)
__________.
9. Pendant une (bref) période, elle a connu quelqu’un, mais cela n’a pas duré.
10. Avec ses yeux (vert clair) ses joues (rose) et son (épais)
chevelure (auburn) , elle ne restera pas seule longtemps.
2 Translate the following phrases into French:
Example : grand / homme
A great man un grand homme
A tall man un homme grand
1. seule / femme
(only) one woman
a lonely woman
2. jeunes / mariés
a newly married (couple)
a young married people
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
118
3. belle / famille
a beautiful family
in-laws
4. sale / tête
a nasty face
a dirty face
5. propre / voiture
his / her clean car
his / her own car
6. cher / bijou
my beloved jewel
my expensive jewel
7. ancienne / usine
a former factory
an old (in age) factory
8. sacré / endroit
a (hell of a) place
a holy place
9. curieux / enfant
a nosy / inquisitive child
a strange child
10. pauvre / homme
the poor man!
a poor (not wealthy) man
3 Write the correct form of the adjective in brackets:
1. Il a les yeux (marron) et les cheveux
(noir) .
2. Elle aime
porter des pulls (rose) et des vestes
(assorti) .
3. Les chemises (bleu marine) sont celles qu’il préfère.
ADJECTIVES
ADJECTIVES
119
4. Mes (nouveau) voisines sont des (jeune) lles
(bien) .
5. Elles ont l’air (agressif) .
6. Ils ont acheté trois (demi) -livres de beurre.
7. Mes chaussures ne sont pas (bon marché) mais les tiennes
coûtent encore plus cher.
8. Ils se promènent souvent (nu) -tête et les pieds (nu) .
9. Mes amis sont des gens (cool) mais pas vraiment
(sexy) .
10. Les murs de sa chambre sont maintenant (bleu clair) .
4 Fill the gaps in the table with the correct forms of the adjectives:
Masculine singular Masculine plural Feminine singular Feminine plural
blancs
douce
discret
amères
délicat
vive
bas
frais
brèves
ère
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
120
5 Using the vocabulary in the boxes, paint a physical and moral portrait of
a female friend of yours. The adjectives used should all be either feminine
singular or plural, or masculine plural.
Example :
1. Ma meilleure amie est jolie mais un peu égoïste.
2. Elle a souvent une attitude agressive, mais elle est franche …
Apparence vieux, jeune, joli, beau, athlétique, mince (thin, slim), maigre
(skinny), gros (fat), grand (tall), petit
La face (le visage) / la
gure / la tête :
rond, carré, long, allongé, poupin / potelé (chubby), jouf u
(chubby-cheeked)
Les yeux Couleur : marron, vert, gris, noir, bleu, bleu clair
Forme : rond, en amande (almond-shaped), écarquillé (wide-eyed)
Les
cheveux
Couleur : brun, blond, châtain / clair / foncé, roux, auburn
Forme : court, long, frisé, bouclé, raide
Les bras musclé, tatoué, mince
Description morale calme, agressif, insolent, arrogant, posé, gentil
combatif, gagneur, perdant, loser, débrouillard (resourceful)
curieux, passif, actif
amusant, drôle, ennuyeux
franc, menteur, honnête
egoïste, généreux, indifférent
naïf, intelligent
sportif
121
5 NUMBERS
There are three types of numbers:
those we use for counting (7, 25, 302, 1000, etc.), called cardinal numbers
those we use for placing things in order (1st, 6th, 21st, etc.), called ordinal numbers
those we use for stating approximate quantities (‘a dozen or so’, ‘a couple’, etc.)
There are many differences between French and English in the way that numbers are
formed and used.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
122
KEY POINTS
Numbers are determiners which indicate the quantity of the thing described.
In general, numbers precede the noun, but there are some exceptions:
deux mille euros two thousand euros
le troisième homme the third man
But
l’an 2000 the year 2000
Henri IV (quatre) Henry the Fourth
Numbers do not agree in gender with the exception of:
the cardinal number un(e) either standing alone or forming part of another
number.
Parmi les concurrents il n’y avait qu’une lle. Among the contestants there was only one
girl.
J’ai cent un amis sur Facebook. I’ve a hundred and one Facebook friends.
vingt et
une bouteilles twenty-one bottles
the ordinal numbers, premier(s) / première(s) and second(e)(s)
les premières eurs du printemps the rst blossom of spring
voyager en seconde classe to travel second class
5.1 Cardinal numbers
0 zéro
1 un
2 deux
3 trois
4 quatre
5 cinq
6 six
7 sept
8 huit
9 neuf
10 dix
11 onze
12 douze
13 treize
14 quatorze
15 quinze
16 seize
17 dix-sept
18 dix-huit
19 dix-neuf
20 vingt
21 vingt et un
22 vingt-deux
23 vingt-trois
24 vingt-quatre
25 vingt-cinq
26 vingt-six
27 vingt-sept
28 vingt-huit
29 vingt-neuf
30 trente
31 trente et un
40 quarante
41 quarante et un
NUMBERS
NUMBERS
123
50 cinquante
51 cinquante et un
60 soixante
61 soixante et un
70 soixante-dix
71 soixante et onze
72 soixante-douze
73 soixante-treize
80 quatre-vingts
81 quatre-vingt-un
82 quatre-vingt-deux
83 quatre-vingt-trois
90 quatre-vingt-dix
91 quatre-vingt-onze
92 quatre-vingt-douze
93 quatre-vingt-treize
100 cent
101 cent un
102 cent deux
103 cent trois
200 deux cents
201 deux cent un
300 trois cents
1 000 mille
1 001 mille un
1 100 mille cent*
1 101 mille cent un
1 200 mille deux cents*
2 000 deux mille
1 000 000 un million
1 200 000 un million deux cent mille
1 000 000 000 un milliard
1 000 000 000 000 un billion
* onze cents (1 100), douze cents (1 200) etc. are
alternatives
Note
In Belgium and Switzerland the cardinal numbers are identical except for 70–79 and
90–99:
70 = septante, 71 = septante et un, etc.; 90 = nonante, 91 = nonante et un, etc.
In Switzerland octante (80), etc. also exists.
5.1.1 Linkage of numbers
Use of et
et is inserted where 1 is added to tens: vingt et un, trente et un, except quatre-vingt-un
and quatre-vingt-onze
et is not inserted after hundreds or thousands, where it would be in English:
cent dix a hundred and ten
mille soixante-deux a thousand and sixty-two
Use of hyphens*
Hyphens link most compound numbers under 100:
17 dix-sept
45 quarante-cinq
98 quatre-vingt-dix-huit
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
124
They do not link 21, 31, 41, 51, 61, 71, 101, 1 001, 100 000 001:
21 vingt et un
31 trente et un
71 soixante et onze
101 cent un
1 001 mille un
They do not link numbers of 100 and above with a following number (but added
compound numbers retain their hyphen[s]):
103 cent trois
133 cent trente-trois
191 cent quatre-vingt-onze
1 420 mille quatre cent vingt
*Under the new rules for spelling (1990) it is suggested that hyphens be inserted for all
compound numbers. For example: 1328 = mille-trois-cent-vingt-huit (see Appendix pp.
381–92).
5.1.2 Plurals
quatre-vingts loses the nal s when another number is added:
88 quatre-vingt-huit
but not when another noun follows:
quatre-vingts kilos eighty kilos
cent adds an s when it is multiplied and not followed by another number.
Hundreds from deux cents to neuf cents lose the nal s when another number is added:
200 deux cents
1 800 mille huit cents
777 sept cent soixante dix-sept
but not when a noun follows:
quatre cents habitants four hundred inhabitants
un million, un milliard, un billion are nouns and must be made plural when necessary:
trois millions three million
deux millions trois cent mille cinq two million three hundred thousand and ve
but they must be followed by de / d’ when they precede words other than numbers:
un million d’habitants a million inhabitants
un milliard de livres a billion pounds
NUMBERS
NUMBERS
125
5.1.3 huit, onze
When le precedes huit or onze, it is not elided to l’:
le onze mars the 11th of March
le numéro de mon billet est le huit. The number of my ticket is eight.
5.1.4 Pronunciation
six, dix /sis/, /dis/
the nal letter is pronounced [s] when the number stands alone or at the end of a
sentence:
Il en veut six. /sis/ He wants six.
Il y en avait dix. /dis/ There were ten of them.
the nal letter is pronounced [z] when the number precedes a word beginning with
a vowel or silent h:
dix euros /diz/ ten euros
à six heures /siz/ at six o’clock
the nal letter is not pronounced before a word beginning with a consonant:
six jours /si/ six days
dix roubles /di/ ten roubles
huit /ɥit/
The nal -t is pronounced when huit stands alone or precedes a word beginning with a
vowel or silent h:
huit hommes /ɥit/
eight men
J’en veux huit. /ɥit/
I want eight.
but it is not pronounced before a noun beginning with a consonant:
huit dollars /ɥi/
eight dollars
vingt /vɛ
/
The nal -t is pronounced only in the numbers 21–29 and when vingt precedes a word
beginning with a vowel or silent h:
vingt enfants /vɛ
t/
twenty children
cent /sɑ
/
The nal -t is not pronounced when another number follows, e.g. 101 cent un, 108 cent
huit, but it is pronounced when cent precedes a word beginning with a vowel or silent h:
cent arbres /sɑ
t/
a hundred trees
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
126
5.1.5 Placing of cardinal numbers after the noun
Cardinal numbers follow the noun when referring to a page, a line of text / a poem, a
bus, a terminal, and a year. A de nite article precedes the noun in these cases (see also
5.2.4).
Commence à la page 244. Start on page 244.
Lis la ligne 3. Read line 3.
Prends le 5. Catch the number 5.
le Terminal 3 Terminal 3
le quai 6 Platform 6
l’an 2014 (the year) 2014
5.2 Ordinal numbers
1st premier,première
2nd deuxième, second(e)
3rd troisième
4th quatrième
5th cinquième
6th sixième
7th septième
8th huitième
9th neuvième
10th dixième
11th onzième
12th douzième
13th treizième
14th quatorzième
15th quinzième
16th seizième
17th dix-septième
18th dix-huitième
19th dix-neuvième
20th vingtième
21st vingt et unième
22nd vingt-deuxième
30th trentième
40th quarantième
50th cinquantième
60th soixantième
70th soixante-dixième
71st soixante et onzième
80th quatre-vingtième
90th quatre-vingt-dixième
91st quatre-vingt-onzième
100th centième
1000th millième
Note
dernier, -ière(s) = last
le dernier jour des vacances the last day of the holidays
5.2.1 Formation
Ordinal numbers are formed by adding -ième to the cardinal number. Note that:
cardinal numbers, e.g. quatre, drop the nal ending -e:
la quatrième année de ses études the fourth year of his studies
NUMBERS
NUMBERS
127
cinq, vingt-cinq, etc. insert u before -ième:
le cinquième anniversaire the fth anniversary
The nal -f of neuf, dix-neuf, etc. becomes v:
au neuvième étage on the ninth oor
The shortened forms of the ordinal numbers are as follows:
1
er/re
, 2
e
, 3
e
, etc.
5.2.2 premier
In dates premier is the only ordinal number used, for the rst day of the month:
le premier juillet the rst of July
Otherwise, unlike in English, cardinal numbers are used:
le vingt-deux juillet the twenty-second of July
premier is also used for the rst of monarchs and popes of the same name:
François premier (normally written François I
er
) Francis the First
Elizabeth première (Elizabeth I
re
) Elizabeth the First
Otherwise, unlike in English, cardinal numbers are used:
Louis seize (XVI) Louis the Sixteenth
Jean-Paul deux (II) John-Paul the Second
5.2.3 second(e) and deuxième
These two words have the same meaning but deuxième is used more frequently. Second is
for a maximum of two; deuxième is used for more than two.
la Seconde Guerre mondiale. the Second World War
C’est la deuxième des quatre maisons à gauche. It’s the second of the four houses on the left.
5.2.4 Use of cardinal numbers to replace ordinals
When cardinal numbers replace ordinals, e.g. la page 8, numbers which end in s in the
plural lose the s. These numbers are quatre-vingts and multiples of cent (deux cents, trois
cents):
page trois cent, ligne quatre-vingt page three hundred, line eighty
l’année mille neuf cent nineteen hundred
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
128
5.3 Word order when a cardinal and ordinal
number are together
Unlike in English, when a cardinal and an ordinal number, or dernier, come together, the
cardinal number always comes rst:
les trois premiers jours d’avril the rst three days of April
Les deux derniers coureurs étaient italiens. The last two runners were Italian.
5.4 Approximate numbers
Approximate numbers are formed, in general, by adding the suf x -aine to the cardinal
number, dropping the nal -e, where relevant.
une huitaine about eight
une dizaine about ten (note the -x of dix becomes -z)
une douzaine about a dozen (but see note below)
une quinzaine about fteen
une vingtaine about twenty
une trentaine about thirty
une quarantaine about forty
une cinquantaine about fty
une soizantaine about sixty
une centaine about a hundred
un millier about a thousand
Note
The following numbers usually denote a speci c quantity or time period:
une douzaine (exactly) a dozen
une huitaine a week
une quinzaine a fortnight
As nouns, these numbers are followed by de when expressing an approximate quantity
of something:
une douzaine d’œufs a dozen eggs
Elle aura la trentaine. She’ll be about thirty.
des centaines de personnes hundreds of people
NUMBERS
NUMBERS
129
5.5 Time
The full answer to the question Quelle heure est-il ? (What time is it?) begins Il est …
Il est une heure. It’s one o’clock.
Il est trois heures vingt-cinq. It’s twenty- ve past three.
For ‘half past’ the hour et demi(e) is added:
Il est six heures et demie. It’s half past six.
Il est midi et demi. It’s half past twelve/midday.
For ‘quarter past’ and ‘quarter to’ the hour et quart and moins le quart are added; for
times in between: for ‘past’ just add the number; for ‘to’ moins plus the gure is used:
Il est huit heures et quart. It’s a quarter past eight.
il est huit heures dix. It’s ten past eight.
Il est neuf heures moins le quart. It’s a quarter to nine.
Il est neuf heures moins vingt-cinq. It’s twenty- ve to nine.
Figures may be used as an alternative to the above:
8.15 huit heures quinze
8.20 huit heures vingt
8.30 huit heures trente
8.45 huit heures quarante-cinq
8.55 huit heures cinquante-cinq
The twenty-four-hour clock is used for timetables, opening hours, etc.
Le magasin est ouvert de 14h00 à 17h30. The shop is open from 14:00 to 17:30.
Le train part à 23h22. The train departs at 23:22.
‘a.m.’ and ‘p.m.’ are expressed in French by du matin, de l’après-midi and du soir:
Je suis parti à 11 heures du matin. I left at 11 a.m.
Viens à 7 heures et demie du soir. Come at 7.30 p.m.
When stating distance in terms of time, the word minute(s) is often omitted:
Le château est à 1 heure 35 de marche. The castle is 1 hour 35 minutes’ walk.
5.6 Dates
Cardinal numbers are used for days of the month, with the exception of premier (the
rst):
le 1
er
[premier] août (on) 1
st
[the rst of] August
le 15 [quinze] septembre (on) 15
th
[the fteenth of] September
le 31 [trente et un] octobre (on) 31
st
[the thirty- rst of] October
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
130
There are two ways of expressing the year:
1998 mille neuf cent quatre-vingt-dix-huit [lit. one thousand nine hundred and
ninety-eight]
or
dix-neuf cent quatre-vingt-dix-huit nineteen hundred and ninety eight
but only the rst way is used from 2000 onwards.
2013 deux mille treize (two thousand and thirteen)
Decades are expressed by les années plus the number:
J’ai beaucoup voyagé dans les anneés soixante-
dix.
I travelled a lot in the seventies.
5.7 Measurements
The adjectives épais (thick), haut (high), large (wide), long (long), and profond (deep) are
used for measurements. Two structures may be used to express measurement:
être + (adjective) + de + length, etc.
Cette piste est longue de 400 mètres. That track is 400 metres long.
Le bâtiment est haut de 20 mètres. The building is 20 metres high.
or
avoir + length etc. + de + (adjective)
La table a 90 cm de large. The table is 90 centimetres wide.
In colloquial French faire + length etc. + de + (adjective) is commonplace:
Cette route fait 10 km (de long). This road is 10 kilometres (long).
5.8 Fractions and calculations
Fractions and decimals
la moitié (half)
La moitié is the equivalent of ‘half’ as a noun:
J’ai passé la moitié de ma vie en Afrique. I’ve spent half my life in Africa.
demi is the equivalent of ‘half’ when linked to another noun by a hyphen. It is
invariable (see 4.11).
un demi-verre de vin blanc half a glass of white wine
une demi-douzaine half a dozen
une demi-heure half an hour
NUMBERS
NUMBERS
131
When, however, it follows the noun and is linked by et, it agrees with the noun:
une heure et demie an hour and a half
trois kilos et demi three and a half kilos
un quart (a quarter), trois quarts (three quarters)
Un quart des habitants n’ont pas voté. A quarter of the inhabitants did not vote.
(Note the plural agreement with
‘habitants’ here)
Les trois quarts des bouteiiles étaient vides. Three-quarters of the bottles were empty.
un tiers (a third), les deux tiers (two-thirds)
Un tiers de la population est mal nourri. A third of the population is malnourished.
Les deux tiers des grévistes sont retournés à la
maison.
Two-thirds of the strikers have gone home.
Ordinal numbers are used for the remaining fractions: un sixième (a sixth), un huitième (an
eighth), un dixième (a tenth), etc.
when a number is followed by decimal, a comma is used to separate them (unlike
in English, which uses a full stop):
65,5 % 65.5%
21,35 € €21.35
sur with numbers
sur is the equivalent of ‘out of ‘ in such phrases as deux sur trois (two out of three) and dix
sur vingt (ten out of twenty).
Calculations
2 + 2 = 4 deux et/plus deux font/égalent quatre two and two make/are four
4 – 2 = 2 quatre moins deux égalent deux four minus two makes two
3 x 3 = 9 trois fois trois font/égalent neuf three times three makes nine
30 ÷ 6 = 5 trente divisé par six égalent cinq thirty divided by six equals ve
5.9 Quanti ers
Quanti ers are words or phrases used before a noun to indicate the amount or quantity.
In English ‘many, ‘enough’, ‘all’ are quanti ers. Like numbers, they are determiners.
Quanti ers are words and phrases of the following kind:
assez de enough
beaucoup de much, many
bien de many
chacun de each one of
chaque each
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
132
moins de less, fewer
peu de few
pas de no, not any of
plus de more
quelques a few, some
plusieurs several
trop de too many
tous all
Nous n’avons pas assez de temps pour peindre
les quatre murs de la pièce.
We haven’t enough time to paint the four
walls of the room.
Chaque fois qu’il vient nous nous disputons. Each time he comes we quarrel.
Tous les jours il commence par faire ses
exercices.
Every day he begins by doing his exercises.
When the subject of the sentence is beaucoup de, bien de, moins de, peu de, plus de or trop
de followed by a plural noun, the verb is plural:
Moins de gens viennent ici qu’avant. Fewer people come here than before.
Peu de gens savent la vérité. Few people know the truth.
When the quanti er stands on its own as the object of the verb, en must precede the
verb (see 3.4):
Combien de gens y a-t-il ? Il y en a beaucoup. How many people are there? There are lots.
Où sont toutes les chaises du jardin ? Il y en a
moins qu’hier.
Where are all the garden chairs? There are
fewer than yesterday.
Tu as des pancements ? Oui, j’en ai plusieurs. Have you got any plasters? Yes, I have
several.
Note
Quelques becomes quelques-un(e)s when standing alone:
Tours est à quelques kilometres d’ici. Tours is a few kilometres from here.
– Tu connais les lms de Godard ? ‘Are you familiar with Godard’s lms?’
– Oui, j’en ai vu quelques-uns. ‘Yes, I’ve seen a few.’
NUMBERS
NUMBERS
133
Numbers in context
La n de Bel Ami
Après 5 ans de bons et loyaux services, le cheval le plus médaillé de ces vingt
dernières (1) année s se retire en pleine gloire. Trois blessures successives auront eu
raison de son courage.
À son palmarès, des gains cumulés atteignant les 637 900 euros (2), trente et une
(3) courses courues, neuf victoires et sept placés sur le podium, dont cinq victoires
de groupe II. À ľâge de six ans et cinq mois, cest un exploit. Mais après une
honorable deuxième (4) place, malgré deux blessures légères, lors de ľavant-dernier
critérium ďEnghien, Bel Ami naura pu terminer ce qui allait être son ultime
challenge.
En tout, deux tendons et cinq muscles abîmés en trois courses. Cest plus quil nen
faut pour abattre un champion de cette trempe. Nos derniers (5) espoirs de voir ce
grand coureur de nouveau en piste se sont défi nitivement évanouis lors de cette
dernière (5) course, il y a 3 jours à peine. La vilaine blessure que sest infl igée Bel
Ami fait suite à une série de deux autres, plus légères mais handicapantes tout de
même. L’incident s’est produit alors que Bel Ami avait déjà couru les trois quarts
(6) du parcours, en première (7) position. Sur cette course élégante, de 2,6 km de
long (8), talonné par le huit (9), Black Beauty, un pur sang de première (7) classe,
lui-même suivi en troisième (10) position par le onze (11), Bourguignon, Bel Ami a
dû céder sa place de leader.
Le 3 octobre (12), Bel Ami fi
nira ses jours dans un haras, à 1 heure 10 (13) à
peine de Paris. Son propriétaire lui a déjà trouvé une douzaine (14) de juments, de
quoi faire des dizaines (15) de poulains de son envergure et qui sait, peut-être des
centaines (15) de petits enfants.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
134
1 vingt dernières order of numbers [5.3]
2 637 900 cardinal numbers [5.1]
3 trente et un cardinal numbers [5.1]; hyphens [5.1.1]
4 deuxième ordinal numbers [5.2]
5 derniers/dernière ordinal numbers [5.2]
6 les trois quarts fractions [5.8]
7 première ordinal numbers [5.2; 5.2.2]
8 2,6 km de long measurements [5.7]; decimals [5.8]
9 le huit le is not elided before huit [5.1.3]
10 troisième ordinal numbers [5.2]
11 le onze le is not elided before onze [5.1.3]
12 Le 3 octobre dates [5.6]
13 1 heure 10 distances in terms of time [5.5]
14 douzaine approximate numbers [5.4]
15 dizaines, centaines approximate numbers [5.4]
NUMBERS
NUMBERS
135
Exercises
1 Write the following numbers in words:
1. 121 pages
2. 380
3. l’an 1800
4. page 400
5. 120 pages
6. 200 000
7. 200 000 000 €
8. Tous les 20 ans
9. 2 220 300
10. 80 000 000
2 Write the following numbers in words and make the words in brackets
agree where necessary:
1. 8 (milliard)
2. 6 (mille)
3. 1,9 (million)
4. 2,1 (million)
5. 4 (mile/h)
6. 3 (mille nautique)
7. 9 ÷ 3 = 3
8. 8 – 1 = 7
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
136
9. 4 x 6 = 24
10. 1 + 1 = 2
3 Write the following numbers in words and put the hyphens in the correct
place(s):
1. 99
2. 171
3. 172
4. 1 286
5. 33
6. 778
7. 180
8. 97,62
9. 191
10. 281
4 Write the following numbers in words:
1. page 31
2. 31e page
3. page 300
4. ligne 80
5. 1er jour
6. 21e semaine
7. 81e semaine
NUMBERS
NUMBERS
137
8. 71e semaine
9. 91e semaine
10. l’an 800
5 Write the following fractions in words:
1. 1/3
2. 3/4
3. 5/8
4. 1/2
5. 2 1/2
6. 3min 1/2
7. 1/9
8. 6/50
9. 8 km 1/2
10. 2/1000
138
ADVERBS 6
Adverbs are invariable words or phrases which modify the meaning of different parts of
a sentence, including other adverbs. An adverb can also modify a phrase or a whole
sentence.
In the sentence ‘We walked slowly’, the adverb ‘slowly’ tells you how we walked.
In ‘She speaks French very well’, the adverb ‘very’ indicates the degree of her pro ciency
in the language.
In ‘Yesterday, we went to the races’, the adverb ‘yesterday’ tells you when the action of
the sentence happened.
ADVERBS
ADVERBS
139
KEY POINTS
In French adverbs function in a similar way as in English. For example, they modify:
verbs
Ils aiment passionnément la montagne. They love the mountains passionately.
[Passionnément modi es the verb aiment]
adjectives
Cette chemise est trop grande pour lui. That shirt is too big for him. [trop modi es
the adjective grande]
adverbs
Cette chemise est beaucoup trop grande pour
lui.
That shirt is much too big for him.
[beaucoup modi es the adverb trop]
prepositional phrases
Le pont est exactement derrière ce bâtiment. The bridge is exactly behind that building
[exactement modi es the prepositional
phrase derrière ce bâtiment]
sentences
Théoriquement, il n’est jamais en retard. In theory, he is never late. [Théoriquement
applies to the whole sentence]
A large number of adverbs end in -ment, which corresponds roughly to English -ly, e.g.
absolument (absolutely)
Adverbs are classi ed in various types, for example:
manner: heureusement (happily)
degree: beaucoup (a lot)
time: hier (yesterday)
place: dedans (inside)
assertion: bien sûr (of course)
negation: jamais (never)
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
140
6.1 Adverbs and adverbials
Adverbs can be single words or expressions of more than one word:
Examples of one-word adverbs are: bien (well), hier (yesterday), loin (far), mieux (better),
plus (more), bientôt (soon), maintenant (now).
Examples of adverbials are: tout de suite (at once), en vain (in vain), ne … rien (nothing).
Adverbials may be linked by a hyphen: avant-hier (the day before yesterday).
Adverbial expressions frequently consist of a preposition followed by a noun,
adjective or verb: pour ainsi dire (so to speak), à nouveau (afresh), au fur et à mesure (as
one goes along, gradually).
Some adjectives can be used as adverbs, without changing their form:
Elles coûtent cher. They cost a lot [lit. ‘dear’].
Elle s’habille court. She wears her skirts short.
Ils ont crié fort. They shouted loudly.
Note
Droit (straight) can be used either as an adverb or an adjective: Elles se tiennent droit or
Elles se tiennent droites. (They stand up straight.)
Some adverbs are borrowed from foreign languages:
Payer cash to pay cash down (English)
a priori a priori (Latin)
Allez-y piano Go easy (Italian)
6.2 Formation of adverbs ending in -ment
Adverbs ending in -ment are very common, and the majority are derived from adjectives.
Adverbs derived from the masculine form of adjectives ending in a consonant, which
add -ment to the feminine form:
Masculine
Feminine
Adverb
amoureux
amoureuse amoureusement loving lovingly
doux
douce doucement gentle gently
faux
fausse faussement false falsely
fort
forte fortement strong strongly
plein
pleine pleinement full fully
sec
sèche sèchement dry drily
ADVERBS
ADVERBS
141
Exceptions
bref
brève brièvement brief brie y
gentil
gentille gentiment kind
kindly
traître
traîtresse traîtreusement treacherous treacherously
Adverbs which carry an acute accent on the e of the feminine ending:
commun
commune communément common commonly
confus
confuse confusément confused confusedly
obscur
obscure obscurément obscure obscurely
précis
précise précisément precise precisely
profond
profonde profondément deep deeply
Note
It is not always possible to derive an adverb from an adjective. A considerable number of
adjectives do not add the ending -ment, among them têtu (stubborn), équivalent
(equivalent), gros (big, fat) and mince (thin). In these cases an adverbial phrase introduced
by de manière or de façon is used, e.g. de manière têtue, de manière équivalente.
Adverbs derived from the masculine form of adjectives which end in ai, e, é, i, u add
-ment to the adjective:
aisé aisément easy easily
poli poliment polite politely
vrai vraiment true truly
Exceptions
The following adverbs ending in e, i
aveugle aveuglément blind blindly
commode commodément comfortable comfortably
énorme énormément enormous enormously
gai gaiement (sometimes gaîment) cheerful cheerfully
impuni impunément unpunished with impunity
Adjectives ending in -eau, -au
nouveau nouvellement new newly
Note
fou and mou also belong to this category, being derived from the masculine form in
old French.
Masculine Feminine Adverb
fou [old French fol]
folle follement mad madly
mou [old French mol]
molle mollement soft softly
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
142
A number of adverbs ending in -ument add a circum ex accent to the u: -ûment:
assidu assidûment assiduous assiduously
cru crûment crude crudely
incongru incongrûment incongruous incongruously
indu indûment inappropriate inappropriately
(See Appendix, pp. 381–92, for new spelling rules on the circum ex accent.)
Adverbs derived from the masculine form of adjectives ending in -ent or -ant:
-ant endings become -amment:
constant constamment constant constantly
élégant élégamment elegant elegantly
-ent endings become -emment:
récent récemment recent recently
évident évidemment evident evidently
The adverb endings -amment and -emment are pronounced the same (the phonetic
symbol for this sound is [-amá˜]).
Exceptions
lent (slow), présent (present) and véhément (vehement) follow the general rule for adjectives
whose masculine form ends in a consonant: lentement (slowly); présentement (presently);
véhémentement (vehemently).
Summary
Formation Examples
Masculine
adjective ending in
a consonant
Feminine form of
the adjective +
ment
Adjective Feminine Adverb
attentif
long
premier
attentive
longue
première
attentivement
longuement
premièrement
Masculine
adjective ending in
a vowel
Masculine
adjective + ment
Masculine form of
adjective
Adverb
modéré
résolu
vrai
modérément
résolument
vraiment
Masculine
adjective ending in
-ant
Stem + amment
courant couramment
galant galamment
ADVERBS
ADVERBS
143
Formation Examples
Masculine
adjective ending in
-ent
Stem + emment
différent différemment
prudent prudemment
violent violemment
Notes
Adverbs cannot be formed from adjectives of colour, except for vert (green) in the
sense of ‘vigorous’:
Ils se sont faits vertement réprimandés. They were sharply rebuked.
A number of adverbs ending in -ment are not derived from adjectives:
bigre (= my goodness! exclamation) bigrement (jolly, extremely)
bougre (= fellow, masculine noun) bougrement (damned)
diable (= devil, masculine noun) diablement (devilishly)
vache (= cow, feminine noun) vachement (colloquial: really, very)
6.3 Different types of adverbs
Adverbs are categorized according to their meaning, but it has to be borne in mind that
some adverbs can be considered to belong to several categories.
6.3.1 Adverbs of manner
Adverbs which indicate the manner in which something is done, e.g.:
ainsi thus
bien well
clairement clearly
comme how
comment how
debout up(right)
ensemble together
facilement easily
gentiment kindly
heureusement happily
lentement slowly
mal badly
mieux better
plutôt rather
vite quickly
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
144
Most adverbs ending in -ment are in this category:
Il a répondu gentiment. He answered kindly.
Il est clairement ivre. He’s clearly drunk.
Elle avance lentement. She’s moving forward slowly.
6.3.2 Adverbs of degree
Adverbs of this kind indicate a degree of intensity, e.g.:
assez enough
autant as much
aussi as
beaucoup much
combien how much
davantage more
environ about
fort greatly
moins less
peu little
plus more
si so
tant so much
tellement so (much)
très very
trop too much
Elle est assez forte. She’s quite strong.
Elle est arrivée trop tôt. She’s arrived too early.
Ils s’aiment tant ! They love each other so much!
6.3.3 Adverbs of time
Adverbs of time refer to the time when something happened, how long it took or its
frequency, e.g.:
aujourd’hui today
déjà already
après after(wards)
depuis since
demain tomorrow
encore still
en n at last
ensuite then, next
hier yesterday
longtemps (for) a long time
ADVERBS
ADVERBS
145
maintenant now
parfois sometimes
quelquefois sometimes
soudain suddenly
souvent often
tard late
tôt soon
toujours always
Les œufs sont parfois bruns parfois blancs. Eggs are sometimes brown, sometimes white.
Il arrive souvent tard. He often arrives late.
Il était polisson mais il a bien changé depuis. He was very naughty but he’s changed a lot
since.
6.3.4 Adverbs of place
Adverbs of place refer to where something is or happened:
ailleurs elsewhere
après after
autour around
dedans inside
dehors outside
derrière behind
dessus on top
dessous underneath
ici here
là there
loin far
partout everywhere
près near
Il a cherché partout son portefeuille. He’s looked everywhere for his wallet.
Il était loin derrière quand on l’a vu la dernière
fois.
He was far behind when we saw him last.
6.3.5 Adverbs of assertion
These adverbs indicate the degree of belief or agreement of the speaker in response to a
statement. They usually modify a whole sentence:
bien sûr of course
certainement certainly
oui yes
sans doute probably, no doubt
si yes (responding to a negative remark)
soit very well
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
146
volontiers willingly
vraiment really
Vous ne venez pas avec nous ? Si, je viens. Aren’t you coming with us? Yes, I am.
Il a sans doute pris le taxi pour aller à l’aéroport. No doubt he’s taken a taxi to the airport.
Il ne fait pas la cuisine, mais il fait volontiers la
vaisselle.
He’s doesn’t cook but he happily [lit. willingly]
does the washing up.
6.3.6 Negative adverbs
Negative words, such as ne … pas and ne … rien, are classi ed as adverbs (see Chapter 7):
Je ne sais pas comment faire avec cet étudiant. I don’t know what to do about that student.
On n’a rien sans rien. You don’t have anything without working for
it. [lit. you have nothing without anything]
6.4 Comparison of adverbs
Adverbs of degree (plus, moins, aussi, etc.) are used to make comparisons (see also 4.12).
6.4.1 Relative degree of comparison
The comparative
Comparative of superiority (plus, plus … que)
plus more
plus … que more … than
L’herbe est plus verte ailleurs. The grass is greener elsewhere.
Paul est plus grand que Jean. Paul is taller than Jean.
Comparison of equality
aussi as
aussi … que as … as
pas aussi/pas si … que not as … as
autant (with verbs) as much
Elle n’est pas si méchante qu’elle en a l’air. She’s not as nasty as she looks.
Il ne boit pas autant depuis sa maladie. He doesn’t drink as much since his illness.
Mon ordinateur ne fonctionne pas aussi bien
que le sien.
My computer doesn’t work as well as his.
ADVERBS
ADVERBS
147
Comparison of inferiority
moins less
moins … que less … than
Elle est moins méchante qu’elle en a l’air. She’s less nasty than she looks
The superlative
The relative superlative: the idea of ‘the most’ or -est after a short adjective (‘the
most intelligent’, ‘the greatest’, etc.) is rendered by le plus + adverb or adjective:
C’est le plus beau spectacle de l’année. It’s the most beautiful spectacle of the year.
C’est lui qui court le plus vite. He’s the one who runs fastest.
Les longs courriers sont les avions qui volent le
plus haut.
Long-haul planes are the ones that y highest.
The absolute superlative, or superlative of ‘high degree’
This type of superlative indicates a high degree of a quality without comparing it with
anything else. Adverbs like beaucoup (with verbs) and très (with adjectives and past
participles used adjectivally) are examples:
Elle semble très à l’aise mais en fait elle est
très appréhensive.
She looks very much at ease but in fact she is
very apprehensive.
Elle a beaucoup travaillé et elle ne se plaint
pas trop.
She has worked a lot and she doesn’t
complain too much.
Summary
Degree of
comparison
Comparative
Elle est plus / aussi / moins grande que moi.
She is taller than / as tall as / less tall than me.
Relative
superlative
C’est elle qui est la plus / la moins heureuse de toutes.
She is the happiest / least happy of all.
Absolute
superlative
Elle est très / extrêmement heureuse.
She is very / extremely happy.
6.4.2 Comparative and superlative forms of bien, mal, pis, beaucoup
and peu
Some adverbs, as well as adjectives, have irregular forms in the comparative and
superlative (see 4.12):
bien
Comparative Superlative
bien (well) mieux (better) le mieux (the best)
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
148
Elle conduit bien. She drives well.
Elle conduit mieux que moi. She drives better than me.
Elle conduit le mieux. She drives the best (of all).
mal and pis
The comparative and superlative of mal are regular:
mal (badly) plus mal (worse) le plus mal (the worst)
Il conduit mal. He drives badly.
Il conduit plus mal que moi. He drives worse than me.
Il conduit le plus mal. He drives the worst (of all).
The irregular forms pis (worse) and le pis (the worst) also exist. These forms are used
nowadays only in set expressions such as tant pis (too bad) and de mal en pis (from bad to
worse).
beaucoup
beaucoup (much, a lot) plus (more) le plus (the most)
Il sort beaucoup. He goes out a lot.
Il sort plus que moi. He goes out more than me.
Il sort le plus. He goes out the most (of all).
peu
peu (little, not much) moins (less) le moins (the least)
Elle sort peu. She doesn’t go out much.
Elle sort moins que moi. She goes out less than me.
Elle sort le moins. She goes out the least (of all).
6.5 Position of adverbs
6.5.1 Adverbs which modify verbs
With simple tenses of the verb, the adverb is usually placed after the verb:
Il cherche désespérément un emploi. He’s looking desperately for a job.
Il travaille lentement. He works slowly.
Note
Presque may be placed before or after a verb in the in nitive:
Presque arriver à l’heure n’est pas arriver à
l’heure / Arriver presque à l’heure n’est pas
arriver à l’heure.
Arriving almost on time is not the same as
arriving on time.
ADVERBS
ADVERBS
149
With compound tenses the adverb is usually placed between the auxiliary verb and the
past participle:
Il l’avait instamment prié d’attendre son tour. He had asked him insistently to wait his turn.
Note
Adverbs of time and place are often placed after the past participle:
Il a travaillé hier et avant-hier. He worked yesterday and the day before.
Il est parti loin de chez lui. He has gone far from home.
6.5.2 Adverbs which modify an adjective, a past participle or
another adverb
The adverb is usually placed before an adjective, a past participle or another adverb:
Il est plutôt patient avec ses élèves. He’s quite patient with his pupils.
Elle est beaucoup trop ère pour présenter des
excuses.
She’s far too proud to make apologies.
6.5.3 Adverbs denoting frequency
With verbs in simple tenses, adverbs of frequency, e.g. toujours (always), parfois
(sometimes), jamais (never), de temps en temps (now and again), souvent (often), are placed
after the verb in French but before the verb in English:
Je pense souvent à elle. I often think of her.
Il ne répond jamais quand je l’interroge. He never answers when someone questions
him.
In compound tenses the adverb may be placed after the auxiliary verb or after the past
participle, whereas in English the adverb is placed after the auxiliary:
J’ai marché souvent dans la neige / J’ai souvent
marché dans la neige.
I have often walked in the snow.
6.5.4 Change of meaning of adverbs according to position
Some adverbs change their meaning according to where they are placed in the sentence.
Compare:
Franchement, Jacques a parlé toute la journée. To be frank, Jacques talked for the entire
day. [Franchement modi es the whole
sentence.]
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
150
with
Jacques a parlé franchement toute la journée. Jacques talked with sincerity for the entire
day. [Franchement modi es the verb only,
with the resultant change of meaning of
the adverb.]
and
Logiquement, on devrait pouvoir tout faire. In principle, we should be able to do
everything.
[Logiquement modi es the
whole sentence.]
with
On devrait pouvoir tout faire logiquement. We should be able to do everything
logically.
[Logiquement modi es the verb
only.]
6.6 Inversion after certain adverbs
When placed at the beginning of a sentence, some adverbs, for example peut-être and à
peine, require the verb and subject to be inverted (see 3.1.4):
Peut-être sont-ils allés au concert. Perhaps they’ve gone to the concert.
À peine étions-nous arrivés qu’ils se mit à
pleuvoir.
Scarcely had we arrived than it began to rain.
ADVERBS
ADVERBS
151
Adverbs in context
La vraie Tarti ette
– Bonjour Camilla, tu sembles bien préoccupée.
– Ne m’en parle pas ! Récemment, j’ai voulu faire une tartifl ette à mes amis, elle
était carrément sèche.
– Tu n’as peut-être pas mis assez de fromage. Laisse-moi t’expliquer la vraie
recette :
Tout d’abord, épluche 500 grammes de pommes de terre et coupe-les
soigneusement en dés; rince-les bien.
Fais chauffer délicatement deux cuillères à soupe d’huile dans une poêle et
verses-y 200g d’oignons fi nement coupés. Une fois les oignons parfaitement cuits,
ajoute les pommes de terre. Fais dorer légèrement toutes les faces des cubes de tes
pommes de terre, rajoute 200g de lardons et attends patiemment la cuisson.
Simultanément, prends ton reblochon, assure-toi que les côtés soient assez mous, et
gratte la croûte superfi ciellement. Coupe-le en deux.
Maintenant préchauffe le four; ne le mets pas trop fort, environ 200°C.
Munis-toi d’un plat à gratin dont tu auras préalablement frotté les bords avec de
l’ail.
Verses-y une première couche de tes pommes de terre aux lardons; étale une moitié
de ton reblochon par-dessus. Ensuite, étale le reste des pommes de terre que tu
recouvriras avec la deuxième moitié de ton reblochon… Attention, la croûte en-
dessous !
Mets au four pendant 20 minutes. Et n’oublie pas de m’inviter.
– D’accord, dès demain !
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
152
In this recipe adverbs are used to give more information, telling us how, where, when,
etc. actions take place. Adverbs modify other parts of speech such as verbs, adjectives
and other adverbs. The following table picks out some of the adverbs in the passage
showing their type and their function within the sentence.
Adverb Type Function
bien degree modi es the adjective préoccupée
[6.3.2]
ne … pas negation modi es the verbe parle [6.3.6]
récemment time modi es the clause: j’ai voulu faire
une tarti ette à mes amis [6.3.3]
carrément manner modi
es the adjective sèche [6.3.1]
soigneusement manner modi es the verb coupe [6.3.1]
patiemment manner modi es the verb attends [6.3.1]
simultanément time modi es the sentence: prends ton
reblochon, assure-toi que les côtés
soient assez mous, et gratte la croûte
super ciellement [6.3.3]
maintenant time modi
es the sentence préchauffe le
four [6.3.3]
trop degree modi es the adverb fort [6.3.2]
fort degree modi es the verb mets; this is an
example of an adjective used as
adverb [6.3.2]
préalablement time modi es the verb [tu] auras frotté
[6.3.3]
ensuite time modi es the sentence: étale le reste
des pommes de terre que tu
recouvriras avec la deuxième moitié de
ton reblochon… [6.3.3]
par-dessus place modi es the verb étale [6.3.4]
ADVERBS
ADVERBS
153
Exercises
1 Turn the adjectives between brackets into adverbs:
Hier, je me promenais (nonchalant) le long de la plage. Les mouettes
planaient (silencieux) . Ce morceau de rivage est (général)
désert. On y rencontre que (rare) quelques
photographes.
J’arpentais donc (tranquille) le pied de la falaise et ne me doutais
pas que ce jour-là j’allais tout (simple) faire un bond en arrière de
plusieurs millions d’années.
(Habituel) ces choses n’arrivent que dans les livres ou au cinéma.
Je me tenais (parallèle) à la falaise. Je voulais éviter (soigneux)
________________ les petites pierres qui tombaient (inévitable) le
long de la paroi friable.
Soudain, une vague un peu plus forte m’obligea à me jeter (précipitant)
sur la muraille de terre et de cailloux. (Inopiné)
mon pied trébucha.
Je sentis une douleur à la main. Je venais de heurter (violent) quelque
chose de pointu.
Quelque chose qui ressemblait (étrange) à de la pierre sans être
(vrai) de la pierre. En regardant plus (attentif)
et en écartant (délicat) la terre, je crus voir comme un morceau d’os
pétri é.
(Rapide) , mon esprit se ressaisit. Je compris l’importance de ma
découverte.
Je rentrai (hâtif) chez-moi. Je venais tout (bon)
de découvrir un fossile rare.
Il ne me restait plus qu’à alerter les autorités et attendre de devenir ce qu’ (indubitable)
je ne manquerais pas de devenir : un héros.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
154
2 Match the adverbs in the left-hand column with their opposites in the
right-hand column:
A souvent 1 peut-être
B tard 2 beaucoup
C ailleurs 3 jamais
D toujours 4 lentement
E trop 5 rarement
F sans nul doute 6 méchamment
G ne … guère 7 tôt
H environ 8 ici
I gentiment 9 peu
J vite 10 précisément
ABCDE
FGHI J
3 Fill each blank with an adverb which is the opposite of the one in the rst
sentence:
1. Il bouge beaucoup. Il bouge
2. Elle habite loin. Elle
habite
3. Ils fument dehors. Ils fument
4. Il faut appuyer fort. Il faut appuyer
5. Il en veut plus. Il en veut
6. Elle n’en veut plus. Elle en veut
7. Parlez plus fort. Parlez plus
8. Tu as répondu poliment. Tu as répondu
ADVERBS
ADVERBS
155
9. Vous vous levez tard. Vous vous levez
10. Elle a expliqué longuement. Elle a expliqué
4 Fill the gaps in the following sentences with the most suitable adverb of
time from the box:
aujourd’hui déjà depuis encore en n
longtemps maintenant parfois soudain tôt
1. Hier le bureau de poste était fermé mais il est ouvert.
2. après la guerre, j’ai gardé des souvenirs de la faim.
3. Mes parents habitent la même maison 1990.
4. Je lui ai dit de fermer la porte à clef mais il l’avait fait.
5. Avant, je faisais du basket mais je n’ai pas le temps de faire du
sport.
6. pendant la nuit, on écoutait le hululement d’un hibou.
7. Il n’est pas allé au concert.
8. tu es arrivé ! Cela fait trois heures que je t’attends !
9. Il se réveille tous les matins.
10. Un profond silence régnait dans la pièce quand le téléphone
sonna.
5 Complete the questions using the adverbs between brackets:
Example : Question : Tu promènes le chien ? Non, je (souvent).
Answer : Non, je ne le promène pas souvent.
1. Tu as aimé le
lm ? Oui, je (beaucoup)
2. Vas-tu à la bibliothèque ? Non, je n’y (souvent)
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
156
3. Comment chante Mikaela ? Elle (très bien)
4. Sandra attend son ami ? Oui, elle (toujours)
5. Vas-tu encore à l’université ? Oui, j’y (quelquefois)
6. As-tu lu Camus ? Non, je (vraiment)
7. Tu tiens à aller au restaurant ? Oui, je (absolument)
8. Jean-Louis est parti ? Oui, il (brusquement)
9. Tu manges combien de fruits chaque jour ? J’ (assez)
10. Est-il toujours fort ? Non, il (aussi… qu’avant)
157
7 NEGATION
Negative words are used to say no, to deny or refuse something. In English, these are
words like ‘not’, ‘never’ and ‘nobody’. In general, a negative sentence in English may be
expressed in two ways, e.g. ‘I never eat sh’ or, alternatively, ‘I don’t ever eat sh’.
In French negation is expressed generally by using two words. The rst of these words is
invariably ne:
ne … aucun no, not any, none
ne … guère hardly
ne… jamais never, not ever
ne… ni … ni neither … nor
ne … nul no, not any
ne … nullement in no way, not in any way
ne … nulle part nowhere, not anywhere
ne … pas not
ne … personne nobody, not anybody, no one, not anyone
ne … point* not
ne … plus no more, not any more, no longer,
not any longer
ne … que only
ne … rien nothing, not anything
*ne …. point is hardly used in contemporary French.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
158
KEY POINTS
In simple sentences the rst negative element (ne) is always placed before the verb and
the second one (pas, jamais, etc.) after it. Ne is elided to n’ before a vowel.
Je ne comprends pas ce que tu me dis. I don’t understand what you are saying to
me.
Il n’a pas beaucoup d’amis. He hasn’t got many friends.
In compound sentences, the rst negative element is always placed before the verb. The
position of the second element is variable: some are placed before the past participle,
others after it.
Il n’a rien dit. He said nothing.
Je n’ai vu personne. I haven’t seen anyone.
Negative words may stand on their own:
Qu’est-ce que tu as dit ? Rien. What did you say? Nothing.
7.1 Position of negative expressions
With simple tenses ne is placed before the verb and any object pronouns; the second
element immediately follows the verb.
Il ne sera pas là avant demain. He won’t be there before tomorrow.
Je ne vois personne. I can’t see anybody.
Je ne m’en souviens jamais. I never remember.
Pourquoi tu ne t’y intéresses pas ? Why aren’t you interested?
With compound tenses
guère, jamais, pas, plus and rien are placed after the auxiliary verb:
Elle ne m’a jamais répondu. She has never answered me.
Il ne m’a rien caché. He hasn’t hidden anything from me.
in all other negative expressions the second part goes after the past participle:
Depuis deux ans je n’ai connu aucun succès. For two years I’ve had no success.
Il n’a rencontré personne. He hasn’t met anyone.
The position of the negative expression is the same in questions and imperatives:
N’as-tu pas vu le feu d’arti ce ? Didn’t you see the
reworks?
Ne vous faites pas de soucis. Don’t worry.
With in nitives in the negative
ne guère, ne jamais, ne pas, ne plus and ne rien precede the in nitive:
NEGATION
NEGATION
159
Il vaut mieux ne pas le faire. It’s better not to do it.
J’essaie de ne jamais manger de chocolat. I try never to eat chocolate.
J’ai fermé les yeux pour ne plus voir. I shut my eyes so as not to see any more.
In all other negative expressions, in general, ne precedes the in nitive and the second
element follows it:
Il est allé là parce qu’il espère ne voir personne. He’s gone there because he hopes he won’t
see anybody.
Il souhaite n’étudier ni à Paris ni a Londres. He doesn’t want to study either in Paris or in
London.
7.2 Order of negative expressions
When two or more negative expressions appear in a sentence, the order of the second
element is variable. In the most common expressions the following is generally true:
jamais normally precedes rien, ni and personne
Il ne dit jamais bonjour ni au revoir. He never says either hello or goodbye.
Elle n’a jamais rien fait de bon. She’s never done anything good.
Il n’aimera jamais personne. He’ll never like anyone.
plus normally precedes rien and personne
Il n’a plus rien fait de bon depuis son retour. He hasn’t done anything good since his
return.
Après tant d’années, elle ne reconnaissaît plus
personne.
After so many years, she didn’t recognize
anyone any more.
rien normally precedes personne
Nous n’avons rien donné à personne cette
année.
We’ve given nothing to anybody this year.
Il n’a rien dit à personne de ses échecs. He’s said nothing to anyone about his
setbacks.
7.3 de with a direct object in negative sentences
Where an inde nite or partitive article is used in an af rmative sentence, de l d’ is used
when the sentence is negated (see 2.5).
Il a une carte mémoire. He’s got a memory
stick.
Il n’a pas de carte
mémoire.
He hasn’t got a
memory stick.
Elle a des amis. She has (some)
friends.
Elle n’a pas d’amis. She hasn’t any friends.
Je mange de la viande. I eat meat. Je ne mange pas de
viande.
I don’t eat meat.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
160
Similarly, in sentences containing ne … jamais, ne … plus or ne … guère, a following direct
object is always preceded by the article de:
Je ne prend jamais de sucre. I don’t ever take sugar.
Il n’y a plus de café. There’s no more coffee.
Il n’y avait guère de voyageurs. There were scarcely any travellers.
Note
This rule does not apply to the verb être:
Ce n’est pas un lm agréable. It’s not an enjoyable lm.
7.4 ne … aucun no, not any, none
aucun(e) acts as an adjective or pronoun. It is only found in the singular:
Il n’aura aucun mal à terminer le travail. He’ll have no dif culty nishing the job.
Aucun de mes collègues ne va refuser de
t’aider.
None of my colleagues will refuse to help
you.
Aucune de ses amies ne peut l’oublier. None of her friends can forget her.
7.5 ne … guère hardly
ne … guère is a restrictive rather than a negative expression:
Je ne sors guère le weekend. I hardly go out at weekends.
ll n’y a guère de pain. There’s hardly any bread.
7.6 ne … jamais never, not ever
ne … jamais is an adverbial expression:
Il ne faut jamais parler la bouche pleine. You must never speak with your mouth full.
Elle ne s’est jamais trompée. She’s never made mistakes.
Jamais can be placed at the beginning of a sentence, followed by ne:
Jamais je n’ai vu un tel spectacle ! I’ve never seen such a spectacle!
Jamais can stand on its own:
As a single word
Vous allez revenir ? Jamais. You’ll come back? Never.
NEGATION
NEGATION
161
as the equivalent of ‘ever’
As-tu jamais pensé que tu pourrais avoir
tort ?
Have you ever thought you could be wrong?
Après les vacances je me sens mieux que
jamais.
After the holidays I feel better than ever.
7.7 ne … ni … ni neither … nor
ne… ni … ni is a conjunction which can link different elements of a sentence, such as the
subject, object pronouns and adjectives:
Ni l’un ni l’autre n’ont su quoi faire. Neither one nor the other knew what to do.
Je n’ai besoin ni d’aide ni de conseil. I need neither help nor advice.
Elle n’était ni triste ni contente. She was neither sad nor happy.
Note
The equivalent of ni in English is often ‘or’:
Il ne faut pas donner de conseils ni à Claude ni
à sa femme.
You musn’t give advice to Claude or his wife.
7.8 ne … nul(le), no, no any; ne … nulle part
nowhere, not anywhere; ne … nullement in
no way, not in any way
ne … nul(le)
Nul has the same meaning as aucun and acts as an adjective or a pronoun. It is almost
always found in the singular. ne … nul means the same as ne … aucun, but is more formal
(see 4.1.3).
Je n’ai nul besoin de pratiquer plus de sport. I’ve no need to play more sport.
ne … nulle part
Je ne l’ai vue nulle part. I haven’t seen her anywhere.
ne … nullement
Je n’avais nullement envie de partir. In no way did I want to leave.
7.9 ne … pas not
pas can be placed at the beginning of a sentence, followed by ne:
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
162
Pas un jour ne se passe sans qu’il ne me rende
visite.
Not a day goes by without his visiting me.
pas can be omitted after the following verbs: cesser de, oser, savoir, pouvoir:
Il n’a cessé de pleuvoir. It hasn’t stopped raining.
Je n’ose lui rappeler l’argent qu’il me doit. I daren’t remind him of the money he owes
me.
Tu ne sais comment le faire. You don’t know how to do it.
Nous ne pouvons aller à Lyon à cause de la
grève.
We can’t go to Lyons because of the strike.
pas is used without ne in certain phrases:
C’est pas grave (colloquial). It’s not serious.
Pas de problème ! No problem!
Pas encore. Not yet.
Pas vrai ! It’s not true!
Pas du tout ! Not at all!
Pas grand-chose (colloquial). Not important / Not much.
7.10 ne … personne nobody, not anybody, no one,
not anyone
personne may act as subject or object of a verb, or appear after a preposition:
Personne n’avait l’air de faire attention à lui. Nobody seemed to pay attention to him.
En général, en n de semaine elle ne voit
personne.
In general at the weekend she doesn’t see
anybody.
Je n’ai plus besoin de personne. I don’t need anyone any more.
Je n’ai parlé de lui à personne. I haven’t spoken to anyone about him.
personne, meaning ‘nobody’, can stand on its own:
Il y a quelqu’un dehors ? Non, personne. Is there somebody outside? No, nobody.
7.11 ne … plus no more, no longer, not any more,
not any longer
Depuis quelques mois je ne lui donne plus
grand-chose à faire.
For a few months I haven’t given him much to
do any more.
Il ne sera plus comme avant. He won’t be like he was any more.
Je n’ai plus besoin d’aller chez elle. I don’t need to go to her place any longer.
Ça n’existe plus. That doesn’t exist any longer.
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163
Note
non plus is the equivalent of ‘neither’, ‘nor’:
Je ne veux plus y aller. Moi non plus. I don’t want to go any more. Neither do I /
Nor me.
7.12 ne … que
ne … que is a restrictive rather than a negative expression:
Il ne me reste que 20 euros. I’ve only 20 euros left.
Il n’y a qu’une personne qui puisse nous aider. There’s only one person who can help us.
7.13 ne … rien nothing, not anything
Rien, like personne, may act as subject or object of a verb, or appear after a preposition:
Rien ne va le changer. Nothing will change him.
Il ne connaissait rien au sujet dont on parlait. He knew nothing about the subject we were
discussing.
Elle ne croit à rien. She doesn’t believe in anything.
Il m’a fait attendre pour rien. He made me wait for nothing.
rien de plus an adjective is a frequent construction:
Il n’y avait rien de bon dans ce lm. There was nothing good in that lm.
Il
n’avait rien d’autre à offrir. He had nothing else to offer.
rien meaning ‘nothing’ can stand on its own:
Alors, qu’est-ce que vous voulez ? Rien. Well, what do you want? Nothing.
expressions with rien:
Ça n’a rien à voir avec … That has nothing to do with …
Ça ne veut rien dire. That means nothing.
Ce n’est rien. It’s nothing.
De rien. You’re welcome.
en moins de rien in no time
mieux que rien better than nothing
rien du tout nothing at all
Rien à faire ! It’s no use!
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
164
7.14 Omission of ne in speech
In the expression ne… pas, ne is frequently omitted in colloquial French:
C’est pas moi qui l’ai fait. It’s not me who did it.
Je sais pas. I don’t know.
7.15 Use of non and si
non is frequently used in negative expressions:
Je crois que non. I don’t think so.
Mais non ! Vous avez tort ! No, you’re wrong!
Non loin d’ici il y a les ruines d’une abbaye. Not far from here there lie the ruins of an
abbey.
La crise va changer la vie non seulement des
pauvres mais aussi des riches.
The crisis will change the lives not only of the
poor but also of the rich.
si is used to answer ‘yes’ to a negative question:
Tu n’es pas prêt ? Si. You aren’t ready, are you? Yes (I am).
(See 15.1.4.)
7.16 n’est-ce pas ?
The English question tags ‘isn’t it?’, ‘aren’t you?’, didn’t they?’ etc. are rendered in
French by n’est-ce pas ?
Tu viendras demain, n’est-ce pas ? You’ll come tomorrow, won’t you?
Vous avez manqué le train, n’est-ce pas ? You’ve missed the train, haven’t you?
(See 15.1.2.)
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7.17 Use of ne without a negative sense
Ne without a negative sense is used optionally in formal French, in the following
circumstances:
after verbs of fearing, e.g. craindre, avoir peur que:
J’ai peur qu’il (ne) revienne. I’m afraid he’ll come back.
after the conjunctions à moins que, avant que and sans que:
On voyagera ensemble à moins qu’il (n’) ait pris
un billet de première classe.
We’ll travel together unless he’s bought a
rst-class ticket.
Rentre le linge avant qu’il (ne) pleuve. Bring in the washing before it rains.
in comparative sentences:
La Scandinavie, c’était mieux que je ne le
pensais.
Scandanavia was better than I thought.
7.18 Negative words with sans
When used with sans (without), negative words have positive equivalents in English
(rien = anything, plus = any longer, etc.):
sans aucun doute without any doubt
sans rien demander without asking for anything
sans jamais me rendre compte without my ever realizing
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
166
Negation in context
Celui que l’on n’attendait pas !
Ils étaient beaucoup plus nombreux qu’on ne (1) l’avait prévu dans ce Pub londonien
en ce dimanche de juillet. De nombreux jeunes qui n’étaient pas (2) venus pour
boire mais pour assister en direct à l’arrivée du Tour de France, avaient les yeux
rivés sur deux écrans de télévision. On n’avait pas (2) lésiné sur la technologie : un
écran géant à l’intérieur et un autre à l’extérieur.
Personne (3) ici n’avait imaginé que cette année le Tour serait remporté par un
Britannique, et surtout pas (4) ces jeunes enthousiastes qui, il y a peu n’avaient
jamais (5) entendu parler ni du Tour ni (6) de son arrivée sur une des plus belles
avenues du monde.
Aujourd’hui, oublie Wimbledon, oublie Roland Garros, rien n’est (7) plus beau que ce
maillot jaune sur les Champs Elysées.
Pas question (4) de se laisser distraire d’aucune (8) manière.
Il est loin l’enfant qui rêvait en regardant les compétitions cyclistes sans jamais oser
(9) imaginer qu’un jour il serait sur la plus haute marche du podium. Aujourd’hui le
champion n’est agé que (10) de 22 ans, mais il n’est nullement (11) un inconnu
dans le monde du cyclisme. Il a déjà gagné plusieurs médailles lors de courses sur
pistes. Malgré ses succès, notre jeune sportif n’est pas (2) encore une vraie star. Cela
ne (12) saurait tarder.
Pendant le Tour, il ne fut certes pas (2) le plus fort dans les étapes de haute
montagne, mais il fut suffi
samment fort en plaine pour ne pas perdre (13) le
maillot jaune endossé dès les premiers jours. Alors bravo quand même au vainqueur,
et tant pis s’il n’a
pas (2) revêtu une seule fois le maillot à pois du meilleur
grimpeur.
Pour ces téléspectateurs il ne fait aucun (8) doute qu’ ils vivent là un moment
historique : la naissance du nouveau roi de la petite reine¹ !
la petite reine nickname for ‘bicycle’
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167
1 Ils etaient beaucoup plus nombreux qu’on
ne l’avait prevu
ne without a negative meaning [7.17]
2 De nombreux jeunes qui n’etaient pas
venus; on n’avait pas
lesiné; notre jeune
sportif n’est pas encore une vraie star; il
ne fut certes pas; s’il n’a pas revêtu
ne … pas [7.9]; with an auxiliary [7.1]
3 Personne ici n’avait imaginé ne … personne [7.10]
4 surtout pas ces jeunes enthousiastes; Pas
question de se laisser distraire
pas standing alone [7.9]
5 … n’avaient jamais entendu ne … jamais [7.6]
6 … n’avaient jamais entendu parler ni du
Tour ni de son arrivée sur une des plus
belles avenues du monde.
ne … ni … ni in the context of two
negatives [7.2 and 7.7]
7 rien n’est plus beau que ce maillot jaune ne … rien [7.13]
8 de se laisser distraire d’aucune manière.
il ne fait aucun
doute
aucun [7.4]
9 sans jamais oser imaginer sans followed by an in nitive (jamais =
English ‘ever’) [7.18]
10 Aujourd’hui le champion n’est âgé que de
22 ans,
ne … que [7.12]
11 mais il n
’est
nullement un inconnu dans
le monde du cyclisme.
ne … nullement [7.8]
12 Cela ne saurait tarder. ne : one element only; without pas after
savoir [7.9]
13 pour ne pas perdre le maillot jaune ne pas : both parts of negative before
in nitive [7.1]
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
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Exercises
1 Put the following sentences into the negative:
1. Le jardinier taille les arbres.
2. Il a eu le temps d’arroser les eurs auparavant.
3. Il commence toujours sa journée par les eurs.
4. Dans sa cabane, il a tout.
5. Il a même une meule pour affûter les lames.
6. Doit-il affûter les lames ?
7. Les sécateurs, oui.
8. Demain il lui restera encore beaucoup à faire.
9. Il lui faudra préparer les engrais.
10. Répandre les produits aussi.
2 Put the following sentences into the correct order:
1. Il a personne vu n’
2. Trois de jours reste ne lui que révision il
3. Depuis il n’ mangé a rien matin ce
4. Aujourd’hui est n’ nulle il part allé
5. théâtre cinéma au ni il ni va ne au
6. temps, il a n’ de dormir guère le
7. plaisanter envie il a n’ nullement de
8. compris n’ je à ai discours rien son
NEGATION
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169
9. elle en jamais souvient s’ ne
10. rencontrer nous personne espérons ne
3 Translate into French:
1. They won’t be there before the weekend.
2. For two days I haven’t had a single cup of coffee.
3. I never set foot in either Asia or Africa.
4. They haven’t got any bakers in this village.
5. It isn’t a shop.
6. They haven’t seen any anywhere.
7. No plant can survive without water.
8. They made me work for nothing.
9. They’re Irish, aren’t they ?
10. He left without buying anything.
4 Answer the questions in the negative:
1. Tu as perdu quelque chose ?
2. Vous voulez encore de l’eau ?
3. Tu as déjà appris une langue asiatique ?
4. Tu as vu quelqu’un ?
5. Ils sont toujours aux États-Unis ?
6. Ils ont toujours écouté de la musique classique ?
7. Elle s’est déjà changée ?
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
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8. Tu veux boire quelque chose ?
9. Déjà ?
10. Tu en veux encore ?
5 Put the text into the negative:
Je suis heureux. J’ai des diplômes et ma vie s’annonce bien. J’aurai même une maison, un
jardin et une voiture.
Je fumerai toujours des gros cigares. J’aurai des amis sincères. Mes parents seront toujours
là pour pour garder les enfants.
J’aurai assez d’argent pour envoyer mes enfants étudier à l’étranger. Ils fréquenteront les
plus grandes écoles. Ils voyageront toujours.
Ils connaîtront toutes les grandes cultures du monde. Ils seront souvent épanouis et tout le
monde les aimera. Ils auront beaucoup d’amis sur Facebook. Ce sera la fête tous les jours.
171
8 VERBS 1
There is no area of grammar that is more important to understand than the verb. This
chapter classi es its features under several headings and explains a number of
grammatical concepts and constructions relating to the verb, with the aim of clarifying
the way in which it functions in French. Further explanation and exempli cation of these
concepts is to be found in Verbs 2 (pp. 204–49). For de nitions of the terminology used
refer to the Glossary on pp. xv–xxi.
8.1 The verb
KEY POINTS
The verb is a word that expresses either an action (travailler, marcher) or a state (être,
paraître).
The verb is the core of the sentence, around which the other elements of the sentence
(the subject, object, etc.) are arranged.
All clauses must contain a verb.
The past participle form of the verb (parlé, vendu, etc.) can function as an adjective.
The in nitive form (parler, vendre) can function as a noun.
Verbs are classi ed in three groups: (1) -er verbs (e.g. parler [to speak]), (2) most -ir verbs
(e.g. nir [to nish]) and (3) a third group consisting of -re verbs (e.g. vendre [to sell]), -oir
verbs (e.g. pouvoir [to be able]) and some -ir verbs (e.g. venir [to come]) (see Verbs 3,
9.2.4).
8.2 Characteristics of the verb
Verbs can be classi ed and regrouped into linking verbs, transitive verbs, intransitive
verbs, pronominal verbs and impersonal verbs, as in the table.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
172
Person 6 persons:
je, tu, il / elle, nous, vous, ils / elles
Je parle anglais. (1st person)
I speak English.
Tu parles français. (2nd person)
You speak French.
Elle parle russe. (3rd person)
She speaks Russian.
Number Singular: je, tu il / elle
Plural: nous, vous, ils / elles
Je parle anglais. (singular)
I speak English.
Nous parlons français. (plural)
We speak French.
Mood* 7 moods:
- 4 personal: indicative,
imperative, conditional and
subjunctive
and
- 3 impersonal:
in nitive,
participles (present and past),
gerund
Vous parlez anglais, je le sais !
(indicative) You speak English, I
know it!
Parlez français, S.V.P. ! (imperative)
Speak French, please!
Il faut que nous parlions russe.
(subjunctive) We have to speak
Russian.
Avec de la pratique tu parlerais
mieux. (conditional) With practice
you would speak better.
un candidat parlant 3 langues
(present participle) a candidate
speaking 3 languages
Il a peu parlé à la conférence. (past
participle) He did not speak much
at the conference.
En parlant tu as dévoilé ton origine.
(gerund) Byspeaking you revealed
your origin.
Tense Present, imperfect, compound
past, future, etc.
Je parle anglais. (present) I speak
English.
Je parlerai français. (future) I will /
shall speak French.
Avant je parlais mieux. (imperfect) I
used to speak better before.
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173
Type 4 types of verb:
– verb (standing on its own)
– auxiliary and semi-auxiliary
– transitive and intransitive
– impersonal
J’ai une vieille voiture. (verb) I have
an old car.
J’ai acheté une vieille voiture.
(auxiliary) I’ve bought an old car.
Elle va parler. (near future) (semi-
auxiliary) She’s going to speak.
Tu as gagné un million ? Tu parles !
(intransitive verb) You’ve won a
million? You must be joking!
Je gagne de l’argent. (transitive) I
earn money.
Il fait beau. (impersonal) It’s ne
weather.
Voice** 3 voices
active, passive or pronominal
Il parle anglais. (active) He speaks
English.
L’anglais est parlé partout. (passive)
English is spoken everywhere.
Ils ne se parlent plus. (pronominal)
They don’t speak to each other any
more.
Aspect Numerous ways of describing an
action (e.g. beginning it, nishing it,
showing its duration, repeating it,
etc.)
Elle parle. (the simple present = the
duration of the action is not
indicated) She speaks.
Elle
est en train de parler. (the
present continuous = the duration
of the action is emphasized) She is
speaking.
* Note that in English it is usual to speak of 3 important grammatical moods (i.e., expressions of the speaker’s attitude by
means of the verb): the indicative, the subjunctive and the imperative.
** Note that English differs from French in specifying that there are 2 voices only, active and passive.
The different forms that a verb can take are called conjugations (see 9.2.1).
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
174
8.2.1 Linking verbs
A linking verb, or copula, is one which connects the subject to the predicate.This type
includes:
être
Steinbeck était américain. Steinbeck was American.
Steinbeck était un écrivain américain. Steinbeck was an American writer.
verbs or verbal expressions of state, indicating the idea of:
appearance:
apparaître (comme) to look like
avoir l’air to look like
être tenu pour to be considered to be
paraître to appear, seem
passer pour to be taken for
sembler to seem
se trouver to be
remaining:
Des banques américaines furent tenues pour
responsables de la crise.
American banks were considered to be
responsible for the crisis.
demeurer to remain
rester to stay
Il est resté in rme après son accident. He remained disabled after his accident.
designation:
être fait to be made
être élu to be elected
être choisi pour to be chosen for
être proclamé to be proclaimed
Elizabeth II a été proclamée Reine en 1952. Elizabeth II was proclaimed Queen in 1952.
François Hollande a été élu Président en mai
2012.
François Hollande was elected President in
May 2012.
naming:
être appelé to be called
être dit to be said to be
être traité de to be called
s’appeler to be called
se nommer to be called / named
Il a été traité de paresseux par son professeur. He was called lazy by his teacher.
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175
state:
devenir to become
se faire to become
tomber to fall
Il est tombé malade. He fell ill.
8.2.2 Auxiliary verbs: avoir and être
The verbs avoir (to have) and être (to be) have a meaning in their own right as verbs but
their basic meaning is lost when they:
act as auxiliaries to form compound tenses of verbs;
are used in the formation of the passive voice;
are used to form pronominal verbs.
avoir
As an auxiliary verb, avoir is used to form the compound tenses of:
all transitive verbs (followed by a direct or an indirect object) in the active voice,
and not pronominal verbs:
Elle a changé de style, mais nous l’avons
reconnue tout de suite.
She’s changed her style, but we recognized
her straight away.
avoir and être themselves:
Ils ont eu beaucoup de chance à l’oral. They’ve had a lot of luck in the oral exam.
Vous avez été souvent en retard cet hiver. You’ve often been late this winter.
J’ai été heureuse de vous rencontrer. I was happy to meet you.
many intransitive verbs:
Il a dormi tout l’après-midi. He’s slept the whole afternoon.
most impersonal verbs:
Il a fait chaud en mai mais il a plu en juin. It was hot in May but it rained in June.
être
As an auxiliary verb être is used:
to form the passive voice of all tenses:
La ferme est constituée de trois bâtiments
principaux.
The farm comprises [lit. is composed of]
three main buildings.
Les bagages avaient été mis dans le coffre. The luggage had been put in the boot.
Il est découragé par le mauvais temps. He’s put off by the bad weather.
Elle était submergée de travail. She was snowed under with work.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
176
to conjugate the compound tenses of all pronominal verbs:
Elle s’est levée tôt, s’est douchée et s’est
précipitée à l’arrêt d’autobus.
She got up early, had a shower and hurried
off to the bus stop.
to conjugate the compound tenses of a number of intransitive verbs, which for the
most part express movement or a change of state (see 9.5.2):
Il est entré. He came in.
Elle est tombée en cours de route et elle est
arrivée couverte de boue.
She fell on the way and arrived covered with
mud.
Note
When a sequence of verbs has the same compound tense and uses the same auxiliary, the
auxiliary can be omitted on the second and subsequent occasions:
Ils ont d’abord lu puis déclamé le texte. First they read and then declaimed the text.
Nous avons pris place dans l’amphithéâtre,
ouvert nos livres et commencé à écrire.
We took our seats in the lecture theatre,
opened our books and began to write.
But when the auxiliaries are different, they cannot be omitted:
Ils sont sortis de l’autobus, ont crié et chanté
à tue-tête et se sont enfuis.
They got off the bus, shouted and sang at the
top of their voices and ran off.
8.2.3 Active and passive voices
When the subject of the verb carries out the action, the verb is in the active voice:
Le lion poursuit la gazelle The lion hunts the gazelle.
Daniel jouera le rôle. Daniel will play the part.
When the subject of the verb receives the action, the verb is in the passive voice.
An active statement, in which the verb has a direct object, may be turned into a passive
one, as follows:
Le rôle sera joué par Daniel. The part will be played by Daniel.
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177
Active sentence: Daniel will play the part.
1 the auxiliary verb être is used in the same tense
as the active verb (jouera)
sera will be
2 the active verb (jouera) becomes a past
participle
(sera
) joué (will be) played
3 the direct object of the active verb (le rôle)
becomes the subject
of the verb être in the
passive voice.
Le rôle (sera joué) The part (will be
played)
4 the subject of the active voice sentence (Daniel)
becomes the agent
and is introduced by par,
de, or à
(Le rôle sera joué) par Daniel. (The
part will be played) by Daniel.
Passive sentence: The part will be played by Daniel.
Similarly, La gazelle est poursuivie par le lion. (The gazelle is hunted by the lion.)
In theory, all verbs which take a direct object can be used in the passive voice, but in
practice French uses the passive far less than English. Two important alternatives to the
passive voice exist in French:
on plus an active verb as an alternative to the passive:
On dit que les Anglais achètent de plus en plus
de maisons en France.
It is said that the English are buying more
and more houses in France.
De nos jours, on construit moins de lignes TGV
en France.
Nowadays fewer TGV lines are being built
in France.
a pronominal verb as an alternative to the passive (see 8.4):
Les abricots se vendent au marché à des prix
modérés.
Apricots are sold at the market at
reasonable prices.
La Tour Eiffel se voit de loin. The Eiffel Tower can be seen from afar.
8.2.4 Semi-auxiliary verbs
Semi-auxiliary verbs in French, such as aller (to go), devoir (to have to), pouvoir (to be
able), commencer à (to begin), venir de (to have just) are always followed by an in nitive,
except for aller (to go) which can be followed by the form ending in -ant.
Like auxiliary verbs they lose their meaning when they express certain nuances of tense,
mood and aspect:
Elle vient d’arriver mais elle va partir tout de
suite.
She has just arrived (recent past), but she is
going to leave (near future) at once.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
178
Semi-auxiliaries of tense:
devoir can express the future:
Je dois partir pour Londres demain. I am to go to London tomorrow.
aller, être sur le point de express the near future:
L’avion va décoller. The plane is about to take off.
venir de expresses a recent past:
L’avion vient de décoller. The plane has just taken off.
Semi-auxiliaries of mood (see also 8.2.5):
devoir expresses an action that is obligatory, probable or desirable:
Un étudiant doit apprendre. A student has to learn.
Il a dû nir son livre. He must have nished his book.
Il pense qu’on doit
procéder ainsi. He thinks we have to proceed in this way.
pouvoir expresses possibility, probability, wishes:
N’importe qui peut se tromper. Anyone can make a mistake.
Il peut être dix heures. It may be ten o’clock.
Puisse-t-il réussir ! If only he can succeed!
Semi-auxiliaries of aspect:
Different verbs are used for different aspects, for example:
commencer à, se mettre à for the beginning of an action
être en train de (to be in the process of) for duration
nir de, cesser de (to nish) for the conclusion of an action
Verbs categorized as semi-auxiliary:
Semi-auxiliary verbs followed by an in nitive:
aller to go
devoir to have to, must
faillir to almost do (impersonal)
faire to do
falloir need, must, have to (impersonal)
laisser to leave, let
manquer to miss, lack
pouvoir to be able, can
paraître to appear
savoir to know
sembler to seem
venir to come
vouloir to wish, want
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179
Semi-auxiliary verbs followed by a preposition plus in nitive:
avoir à to have to
cesser de to stop, cease to
commencer à to begin to
être en train de to be (busy)
être sur le point de to be about to
nir de to stop
se mettre à to begin
se voir en train de to see oneself (doing)
sortir de to come out of
venir de to have just
Il va partir ce soir. He’s going to leave this evening.
Nous devons nir notre travail. We have to nish our work.
La rivière
a manqué déborder. The river almost over owed.
Il avait ni de pleuvoir. It had stopped raining.
Il s’est mis à geler et j’ai failli
glisser plusieurs
fois.
It began to freeze and I almost slipped several
times.
Il a fallu rentrer. It was necessary to go back.
8.2.5 Modal verbs
The term ‘modal verb’ in English describes a category of semi-auxiliary verbs, which
communicate attitude and intention, affecting the meaning of the verb in the in nitive
which follows. The English modal verbs, can, may and must express attitudes relating,
for example, to ability, probability, permission and obligation. May I speak French?
expresses permission; may is the modal verb and speak the in nitive; must I speak
French? expresses obligation.
French does not have modal verbs. The principal equivalents of English modal verbs in
French are pouvoir (to be able), devoir (to have to), savoir (to know), falloir (must) and vouloir
(to wish, want).
Devoir
Devoir expresses three essential ideas:
the future to be to
Il doit arriver demain. He is to arrive tomorrow.
likelihood
Cela doit coûter très cher ! That must cost a lot!
Cette personne devait être très belle étant
jeune.
That person must have been beautiful when
young.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
180
obligation
Je dois absolument partir dans quelques minutes. I must leave without fail in a few minutes.
Different meanings according to tense
In the present devoir expresses:
obligation (must, have to, should or ought to)
Je dois absolument m’absenter pour quelques
jours.
I absolutely must go away for a few days.
when followed by an in nitive it can express a strong probability:
Il doit être 10 heures déjà, non ? It must be 10 o’clock already, mustn’t it?
it is used to correct someone politely:
Vous devez faire erreur, Monsieur ! You must be mistaken, sir!
In the compound past, devoir expresses two different meanings:
an obligation (had to)
Il était tellement epuisé qu’il a dû abandonner
la course.
He was so exhausted he had to give up the
race.
a probability (must have)
Il a abandonné la course, il a dû être fatigué. He gave up the race; he must have been
exhausted.
In the imperfect devoir can have four different meanings:
a compound conditional meaning (should have / ought to have)
Nous devions (= nous aurions dû) être à Paris
demain, mais pour raisons familiales nous ne
sommes pas partis.
We should have been in Paris tomorrow, but
for family reasons we haven’t gone.
obligation (had to)
Nous sommes desolés d’avoir manqué le
rendez-vous, mais nous avons dû aller à Paris
de toute urgence.
We are sorry to have missed the meeting,
but we had to go to Paris very urgently.
Supposition, speculation (must have)
Je ne me souviens plus pourquoi nous avons
manqué le rendez-vous, nous devions être à
Paris.
I don’t remember any more why we missed
the meeting; we must have been in Paris.
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It has a future meaning:
Il était sur le balcon où plus tard De Gaulle
devait faire son célèbre discours.
It was on the balcony where later De Gaulle
would make his famous speech.
In the conditional it expresses:
a recommendation (should, ought to)
Tu devrais t’habiller mieux que ça ! You should dress better than that!
a politely expressed obligation or a piece of advice
Vous devriez vous concentrer sur votre travail. You should concentrate on your work.
a supposition (should, ought to)
Avec de tels résultats, tu devrais trouver un stage
intéressant.
With results like that you ought to nd
interesting internship.
In the compound conditional it expresses:
a regret, reproach or a piece of advice (should have / ought to have)
Tu aurais dû ré échir avant d’agir. You ought to have thought before you acted.
J’aurais dû prendre une aspirine. I should have taken an aspirin.
Devoir is also used pronominally, expressing a moral obligation:
Elle se devait d’être à l’heure. She had to be on time.
Note
Devoir takes a circum ex accent in the masculine singular of the past participle only: dû
(but due, dus, dues).
The imperative of devoir is rarely used.
Falloir
Falloir, meaning to have to, must, should, ought to, is an impersonal verb that is followed
by the subjunctive:
Il faut qu’il apprenne à cuisiner avant de
commencer ses études.
He must learn to cook before beginning his
studies.
Il faudra que tu amènes les billets dès que
possible.
You’ll have to bring the tickets as soon as
possible.
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Pouvoir
Pouvoir expresses:
physical capacity
Avec ma blessure je ne peux pas faire de sport. With my injury I can’t play sports.
permission or possibility
Je ne peux pas sortir, mes parents me
l’interdisent.
I can’t go out because my parents have
forbidden me to.
Ici on peut marcher sur les pelouses. You can walk on the grass here.
being in a state
Je ne peux pas dormir. I can’t sleep.
a hypothesis or eventuality
En juin il peut encore faire froid ! In June it can still be cold!
Fais attention ! Tu peux te blesser avec cet outil. Take care! You can hurt yourself with that
tool.
a polite question
Pouvez-vous m’aider à monter cette valise, s’il
vous plaît ?
Can you please help me to take this case up?
(see savoir for the way of expressing ‘have the means to’, ‘know how to’ in the meaning of
pouvoir)
Different meanings according to tense
In the compound past, pouvoir often expresses an action completed successfully (= réussir
à, to succeed, manage to):
Il a nalement pu résoudre le problème. He’s nally succeeded in solving the problem.
Il a pu avoir un billet pour ce soir. He’s been able / managed to get a ticket for
this evening.
In the conditional, pouvoir expresses future potentiality:
Il pourrait bien se débrouiller tout seul s’il le
voulait.
He could cope by himself if he wanted to.
On pourrait changer notre salon, qu’en penses-
tu ?
We could change our living room; what do
you think?
In the compound conditional pouvoir can express a hypothesis or an eventuality:
Vous auriez pu manquer votre train ! You could have missed your train.
Pouvoir takes a pronominal form in the expression il se peut que, followed by the
subjunctive. It is often translated by ‘may’:
Il se peut qu’il arrive après 18 heures. He may arrive after 6 pm.
Il se peut qu’il pleuve. It may rain.
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Note
The rst person singular of the present indicative of pouvoir has two forms:
a standard form: je peux
in more formal language: je puis
Puis is the form used when there is inversion of the verb and subject: puis-je.
Pouvoir has two rs in the future and conditional form: e.g. je pourrai, etc., je pourrais, etc.
Savoir
Savoir expresses:
acquired knowledge
Il sait parler turc et japonais. He can speak Turkish and Japanese.
success in doing something, having the aptitude to do something
Je saurai le convaincre. I will be able / know how to convince him.
having the means to do something
Il sait parler en public. He knows how to speak in public.
ability, e.g. to play a musical instrument
Elle sait jouer du piano. She can play the piano.
Different uses of savoir
Savoir in the conditional, followed by an in nitive, can have the meaning of pouvoir in
negative utterances (from which pas is omitted):
Je ne saurais vous dire laquelle je préfère. I could not tell you which I prefer.
An in nitive clause after savoir can be used as the complement of a direct object:
Il fréquentait un ami qu’il savait être criminel. He associated with a friend who(m) he knew
to be a criminal.
Elle s’engagea sur un sentier qu’elle savait être
périlleux.
She started on a path that she knew was
dangerous.
Savoir is used pronominally in the meaning of self-knowledge:
Il se sait malade. He knows himself to be ill.
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Vouloir
Vouloir expresses:
a ‘strong’ wish
an intention, desire to carry out something and stick to it
Different uses
In the present vouloir expresses a determined desire or wish:
Il ne veut pas marcher, il veut être porté. He won’t walk; he wants to be carried.
Le proviseur veut connaitre l’auteur des graf tis. The headteacher wants to know who wrote
the graf ti.
In interrogative and exclamatory sentences
vouloir expresses an order. It is often followed
by bien:
Voulez-vous bien rester à votre place ! Will you stay in your place!
With a subject that is not a person, often in the negative, it indicates persistence:
J’ai un mal de tête qui ne veut pas passer. I have a headache that won’t go away.
In the imperative or the in nitive after verbs like prier (to beg) and demander (to ask), it
expresses a desire or a request in a polite way:
Veuillez me suivre, s’il vous plaît ! Kindly follow me.
Je vous prie de vouloir bien me suivre ! Be so kind as to follow me.
In the compound past it expresses a wish that is unsatis ed or unsuccessfully completed:
Il a voulu sauter le mur et il s’est cassé la cheville. He tried to jump over the wall and he broke
his ankle.
On dirait que les malfaiteurs ont voulu passer
par le jardin.
It seems that the thieves were trying to go
through the garden.
In the conditional it expresses a potential wish or a hope:
Au retour, je voudrais passer par la boulangerie. On the way back, I would like to call at the
baker’s.
Il voudrait savoir si vous êtes libre. He’d like to know if you are free.
Vouloir is used pronominally:
Il se voudrait intègre mais l’est-il vraiment ? He’d like to think himself honest, but is he
really?
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8.3 Transitive and intransitive verbs
8.3.1 Transitive verbs
Transitive verbs must be followed by a direct object (in French COD = complément d’objet
direct) or an indirect object (in French COI = complément d’objet indirect).
If the object is not introduced by the prepositions à, de or en, the verb affects directly
the person or thing that is receiving the action. The object is then direct:
Elle a trouvé un emploi. She’s found a job.
If the object is introduced by the prepositions à or de, it is indirect:
Elle pense à ses amis. She thinks about her friends.
Il rêve d’une maison au bord de la mer. He dreams of a house by the sea.
Le tabac nuit à la santé. Smoking damages your health.
Note that in the last example the object is indirect in French but direct in English.
Some verbs are double transitive, i.e. they may be followed by a direct and an indirect
object:
Il offre un verre à son ami. He offers a drink (direct object) to his friend
(indirect object).
Elle enseigne l’espagnol à ses collègues. She teaches Spanish (direct object) to her
colleagues (indirect object).
Note
In the sentence: Il enseigne l’espagnol à l’université (He teaches Spanish at the university),
à l’université is an adverbial phrase of place and not an indirect object.
8.3.2 Intransitive verbs
An intransitive verb is one which is not followed by a direct or an indirect object:
Le chat miaule de façon étrange. The cat miaows strangely.
Le clown gesticule sur la scène. The clown gesticulates on stage.
Le cheval trotte allègrement. The horse trots along cheerfully.
Note
Typically, intransitive verbs are accompanied by an adverbial, as in the examples above.
Most active verbs can be either transitive or intransitive. In some cases, the change
from transitive to intransitive is accompanied by a change of meaning, e.g. arrêter (to
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
186
stop), commencer (to begin), habiter (to live in), manquer (to miss, fail, be missing), servir
(to serve), rompre (to break), retarder (to delay).
verbs without a change of meaning e.g. habiter (à), hériter (de):
Transitive verb with direct object: Il habite la campagne. He lives in [lit. inhabits] the
country.
Intransitive verb: Il habite à la campagne. He lives in the country.
verbs with a change of meaning:
Transitive verb with direct object Intransitive verb
Il a manqué la cible. He missed his target. J’ai contrôlé, rien ne manque. I checked,
nothing is missing.
Elle entre les données. She enters the data. Elle entre dans la pièce. She goes into the
room.
Je monte la valise. I take the case up. Je monte. I go up.
Ils ont fui le danger à temps. They escaped
the danger in time.
Les lâches fuient; les courageux se battent.
Cowards ee; the brave ght on.
Some verbs are always intransitive, e.g. miauler (to miaow), rugir (to blush), arriver (to
arrive), venir (to come), voyager (to travel):
Il sont en train d’arriver à la gare. They are arriving at the station.
Les jeunes voyagent de plus en plus. Young people travel more and more.
Verbs of state, e.g. être, paraître, sembler, devenir, avoir l’air, passer pour, rester, demeurer,
are classi ed as intransitive:
Ils paraissent en forme. They look t.
Il a l’air convenable. He seems respectable.
Some verbs are almost always intransitive, e.g. pleurer (to cry), nager (to swim):
Il ne pleure jamais. He never cries. (intransitive)
Elle pleure des larmes de crocodile. She weeps crocodile tears. (transitive)
Vous nagez comme un champion ! You swim like a champion! (intransitive)
Vous nagez mieux le crawl que la brasse. You swim the crawl better than the breast-
stroke. (transitive)
8.4 Pronominal verbs
Pronominal verbs are verbs in which the subject and the object of the verb are the same
person. In these verbs the re exive pronoun (me / m’, te / t’, se / s’, nous, vous) always
precedes the verb.
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In the in nitive the re exive pronoun is always se or s’:
s’amuser to enjoy oneself
s’habituer to get used to
se réconcilier to make one’s peace
se hasarder to venture
Note
In Je me demande (I wonder) [lit. ‘I ask myself’], the verb is re exive (se demander). The
re exive pronoun me re ects back on the subject of the sentence ‘I’, i.e. ‘I am asking
myself’.
But demander can also be used without a re exive pronoun, as in Il me demande (He asks
me). In this sentence, the pronoun me is not a re exive pronoun because it does not
re ect back on to the subject Il. The subject, and me, the object, are different people.
In compound tenses:
Pronominal verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary verb être (see 8.2.1, Linking verbs)
The re exive pronoun is placed before the auxiliary être:
Il s’est trompé. He made a mistake.
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8.4.1 Verbs which are both pronominal and non-pronominal
Some verbs, such as (se) laver (to wash), can be both pronominal and non-pronominal.
For example, in Je me lave (I wash [myself]) laver is used pronominally; in Je lave la voiture (I
wash the car), laver is not used pronominally. Other verbs, such as s’en aller (to go away),
are always pronominal.
These verbs are of three kinds:
Re exive verbs
These verbs express an action which the subject does to itself:
Je me lave. I wash.
Il s’est surmené. He worked himself too hard.
Nous nous inquiétons. We’re getting worried.
Taisez-vous ! Keep quiet!
In order to know whether a verb is re exive add moi-même, toi-même, etc.:
Je me rase = *je rase moi-même. I shave = I shave myself.
The pronoun that is part of a re exive verb can have different functions:
Direct object: Elles se sont baignées. They bathed.
Indirect object: Elles se sont donné du temps. They gave [to] themselves time.
A re exive pronominal verb is often translated into English by an active verb:
Il s’est coupé le doigt. He cut his nger.
Il se rase tous les matins. He shaves every morning.
Sa santé s’est dégradée. His health deteriorated.
Reciprocal verbs
When the subjects of the verb are doing something to each other the pronominal
verb is called reciprocal. The action is carried out and received by each one at the
same time:
Les enfants se querellent dans la cour. The children quarrel among themselves in the
playground.
Ils s’entraident. They help one another.
Ils se sont rencontrés dans la rue après s’être
cherchés pendant des heures.
They met each other in the street after
looking for each other for hours.
Sometimes reciprocity is indicated by adding l’un l’autre or les uns les autres (each
other, one another):
Ils se sont encouragés les uns les autres. They encouraged one another.
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Some reciprocal verbs can be reinforced by the pre x entre- : s’entraider (to help
each other); s’entre-déchirer (to tear each other to pieces); s’entre-tuer (to kill one
another):
Dans le besoin, il est bon de s’entraider. When in need it’s good to help one another.
To know whether a pronominal verb has a reciprocal meaning, complete the
sentence by adding l’un l’autre, les uns les autres, etc.:
Toutes les élèves se sont averties par téléphone
(les unes les autres).
All the pupils informed each other by
telephone.
Verbs with a passive meaning
A pronominal verb can have a passive meaning when the subject receives the action of
the verb.
In La cloche s’entend de loin (The bell is heard from afar), the sense is a passive one: it is
clearly not the bell which hears itself, and whoever hears the bell is not identi ed. In this
kind of sentence the agent of the action is often not stated, but understood. Here we can
assume that the agent is ‘people / us’.
Je m’appelle … My name is / I am called …
Cela s’entend de loin. That is heard from a distance.
Cela se situe au nord. That is situated in the north.
Cela se voit rarement. That is rarely seen.
Cela ne se fait pas. That is not done.
To know whether a pronominal verb has a passive sense, replace it by a passive:
Cela s’entend de loin = Cela est entendu de loin. That is heard from a distance.
Cela se voit rarement = Cela est rarement vu. That is rarely seen.
L’or se vend cher cette année = L’or est vendu
cher cette année.
Gold is sold at a high price this year.
8.4.2 Verbs found only in the pronominal form
Some pronominal verbs exist only when accompanied by the re exive pronoun me, te, se,
nous or vous (see 3.5). The action of the verb is always carried out on the subject itself.
Examples of these verbs are:
s’abstenir to abstain
s’évanouir to faint, vanish
s’écrier to cry out
se réfugier to take refuge
se repentir to suffer for
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
190
s’en aller to go away
s’enfuir to run off
se suicider to commit suicide
s’envoler to take off, e.g. aircraft
In general, these verbs do not have a re exive, reciprocal or passive sense:
Elle s’est évanouie dans la nature. She vanished into thin air.
Le directeur s’écria: « Fermez la porte! » The director shouted: ‘Shut the door!’
8.4.3 Verbs with a non-re exive and a pronominal form
Some verbs, e.g. rire / se rire de, have both a non-re exive and a pronominal form. The
pronominal form differs from the non-re exive one in meaning, e.g. se douter de (to
suspect), se jouer de (to make light of), se rire de (to make light of), s’apercevoir (to notice),
s’attendre à (to expect):
Il rit à toutes les blagues qu’on lui raconte. He laughs at all the jokes we tell him.
Obélix se rit du danger. Obelix makes light of the danger. (He does
not laugh at it)
Notes
Some pronominal verbs, like s’apercevoir, can have several meanings:
Apercevoir (usual form) / s’apercevoir (pronominal form)
re exive
meaning
Le chimpanzé s’aperçoit dans le
miroir.
The chimpanzee sees himself in
the mirror.
The subject sees himself.
reciprocal
meaning
Nous nous aperçûmes à travers
la vitre.
We saw each other through the
window.
The subjects see each other.
passive meaning Le Mont-Blanc s’aperçoit de loin.
Mont Blanc can be seen from
afar.
The subject is seen in a general
way.
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Apercevoir (usual form) / s’apercevoir (pronominal form)
change of
meaning
Jo s’aperçut qu’il venait de dire
une bourde.
Jo saw that he had made a
blunder.
The subject notices.
Some expressions, like se faire mal (to hurt oneself), se rendre compte (to realize), se
donner rendez-vous (to arrange a meeting), do not have a direct object:
Elles se sont rendu compte du danger. They realized the danger.
Il s’est fait mal au dos. He hurt his back.
8.5 Impersonal verbs
Impersonal verbs are verbs that are introduced by a subject il (the equivalent of English
it), which does not refer to a speci c person or thing. Impersonal verbs are used
especially for statements about the weather, for saying the time and with some common
expressions like il y a (there is / are) and il s’agit de (it is a question of) (see 3.1.5):
Il neige beaucoup. It’s snowing a lot.
Il est cinq heures et quart. It is a quarter past ve.
En été, il y a trop de touristes ici. There are too many tourists here in summer.
De quoi s’agit-il ? What’s it about?
8.6 Verbal aspect
‘Aspect’ is a term which de nes actions in relation to time, as perceived by the speaker.
There are two broad types of action: those which are seen by the speaker as being part of
the ow of time and those which do not refer to time passing.
This opposition is shown in two forms of the present tense in English: I am working and
I work. I am working describes an action in its duration in time; I work expresses a
general idea without reference to duration.
Verbal aspect describes an action in its progression and evolution; this action can be of a
number of different types: repetitive, instantaneous, continuous, ful lled, imminent,
progressive, etc. It is important to know some of these aspects because they are not
expressed in the same way in French as they are in English.
For example, a Frenchman who wishes to help an old lady to lift her suitcase up on to a
luggage rack will say: Laissez, Madame, je vais m’en charger ! [lit. ‘Leave (it to me), Madame,
I’m going to see to it!’], using the immediate future (aller + the in nitive), since the action
is seen as an imminent one. An Englishman, in the other hand, is likely to say: I’ll see to
it!, using the simple future tense.
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In the sentence L’avion est en train de voler (The aeroplane is ying), the verb expresses the
act of ying. Aspect tells us (a) that the action is taking place at the moment the person is
speaking, and (b) that it will last for a length of time that is not speci ed.
Un avion vole (An aeroplane ies): the action described – an aeroplane ying – is the same
as in the rst example, but aspect does not necessarily indicate the action in its duration.
Without a context the action cannot, for example, be seen in its entirety and tell us that
an aeroplane ies as opposed, say, to a ship, which sails.
L’avion a volé (The aeroplane ew): the action is still the same, but aspect tells us that the
action was completed at the time of speaking.
L’avion volait (The aeroplane was ying): the action remains the same, but aspect tells us
that the action was continuing at the time of speaking.
In English the progressive aspect is very important. Simple forms like I work, and
continuous forms like I am working, are in opposition in all tenses and moods of the
verb: I worked / I was working, I’ll work / I’ll be working, etc.
In French, the progressive aspect is rare; it is expressed by phrases such as être en train de
(to be in the process of) + the in nitive:
Il est en train de scier du bois. He is sawing wood.
or by the archaic construction aller + present participle:
La crise va croissant. The crisis is growing.
Ma douleur va s’estompant. My pain is easing.
Many grammarians classify aspects under three headings: grammatical, lexical and
semantic.
8.6.1 Grammatical aspect
Grammatical aspect depends on the conjugation of the verb. It can therefore vary
according to the intentions of the speaker.
One example of grammatical aspect is the opposition between a verbal action that is in
the act of being carried out and one that is completed.
If you say Elle travaillait (She was working), the action is in the course of being completed.
In Elle a travaillé (She worked) the action is completed.
This distinction depends on the tense of the verb and not its meaning; it is therefore
grammatical aspect.
Each simple tense has a corresponding compound form. The compound form, the
auxiliary verb avoir or être plus the past participle, expresses the completed aspect of an
action, whereas the simple form expresses the aspect in process.
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Whether the aspect is completed or in process is therefore linked to the presence or not
of an auxiliary verb: the imperfect, the compound past or the past simple will express
different aspects according to whether they are simple or compound tenses:
Il dormait (He was sleeping): expresses a past action which is ongoing and is incomplete at
the time of being spoken.
Il a dormi (He slept): expresses a completed past action.
In the sentence Il jouait quand sa mère l’a appelé (He was playing when his mother called
him), an action has begun but has not yet been completed (jouait); it serves as background
to another action which is seen in its entirety and has been completed (a appelé).
8.6.2 Lexical aspect
Lexical aspect is indicated by a speci c verb, adverb, semi-auxiliary, etc.
An example of lexical aspect is the ‘iterative’ aspect which marks repetition, as opposed
to an action which happens once only.
Adverbs like régulièrement (regularly), souvent (often), jamais (never), toujours (always), or
expressions like tous les jours (every day), express frequency. In past time, the tense used in
French with these adverbs will generally be the imperfect, the equivalent of English used
to / would plus the in nitive. In the present, the English equivalent will generally be the
simple present and, occasionally, the continuous present.
Tous les matins il lisait le journal. Every morning he would read the paper.
Tous les matins il lit le journal. Every morning he reads the paper.
Here are some ways in which French marks certain lexical aspects.
Use of adverbs
adverb aspect examples English
chaque fois (every
time)
souvent (often)
de nouveau / à
nouveau (again)
parfois (sometimes)
quelquefois
(sometimes)
de temps en temps
(from time to
time)
repetition Sa voiture cale à
chaque fois qu’il
s’arrête.
His car stalls every
time it stops.
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194
adverb aspect examples English
longtemps (for a long
time)
toujours (always)
tout le temps (all the
time)
constamment
(constantly)
sans cesse, sans arrêt
(ceaselessly)
duration Elle a attendu
longtemps.
She waited for a long
time.
bientôt / sous peu
(soon)
incessamment
(shortly)
imminence Il arrive bientôt. He’ll arrive soon.
peu à peu /
petit à petit (bit by
bit)
progression Il y arrivera petit à
petit.
He’s managing bit by
bit.
en n / nalement
( nally, at last)
juste (just)
end Elle arrive
en n. She’s coming at last.
Use of an expression which reinforces
the iterative value.
chaque année (each year)
tous les mois, ans, etc. (every month,
year, etc.)
Il reprend du
paracétamol toutes les
5 heures.
He takes paracetamol
again (iterative) every
5 hours (reinforced
iterative).
Use of pre xes
pre x aspect examples
re- / ré- repetition or return Il a repris du paracétamol.
Elle est retournée chez elle.
He’s taken paracetamol
again.
She’s returned home.
en- distance or passage
from one state to
another
dormir / s’endormir
porter / emporter
to sleep / to fall asleep
to carry / to carry away
par- completion faire / parfaire
venir / parvenir
to do / to perfect
to come / to reach
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Use of suf xes and in xes
*in xes /
suf xes
examples aspect English
-aill- crier / criailler
tirer / tirailler
frequentatives
pejoratives
to shout / to shriek
to tug / pull at
-i er
-iser
solidi er
paci er
nationaliser / étatiser
action
change of state
to solidify
to pacify
to nationalize
-ot-
-et-
voler / voleter
trembler / trembloter
pianoter
vivre / vivoter
frequentatives
pejoratives
diminutives
to
y / to utter
to shake / to tremble
slightly or quiver
to tinkle, drum
to live / to struggle along
-on-
chanter / chantonner frequentatives
pejoratives
diminutives
to sing / to hum
-el- harceler frequentatives
pejoratives
diminutives
to pester / harass
-ass- rêver / rêvasser
pleuvoir / pleuvasser
frequentatives
pejoratives
diminutives
to dream / to (day) dream
to rain / to drizzle
-ill- mordre / mordiller
sauter / sautiller
frequentatives
pejoratives
diminutives
to bite / to nibble at
to jump / to skip along
-in- pleuvoir / pleuviner frequentatives
pejoratives
diminutives
to rain / rain lightly
-ouill- gribouiller
chatouiller
frequentatives
pejoratives
diminutives
to scribble
to tickle
-oyer rudoyer
guerroyer
action or state to bully
to wage war
-nich- pleurer / pleurnicher frequentatives
pejoratives
diminutives
to cry / to snivel
*in x – an element inserted into the root of a word
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
196
8.6.3 Semantic aspect
The perfective / imperfective aspect is an example of a semantic opposition. In French
this opposition is based simply on the meaning of the verb.
The perfective aspect expresses an action that, once it is completed, cannot be
prolonged, or an action which only comes into being when it is nished:
In the sentence Caroline est née à Cambridge (Caroline was born in Cambridge), the
action of being born only comes into being when it is completed; no interruption is
possible because this would mean the action ceased to exist. The same is true of verbs
like fermer (to close), ouvrir (to open), sortir (to go out), mourir (to die), trouver (to nd),
atteindre (to reach), whatever the tense or mood. These verbs are not generally used
with adverbs of duration. You cannot say: *Il naquit sans cesse / longtemps (*He was
born for a long time).
Note that if the meaning of the verb changes because of the context, the verb can be
imperfective, e.g. mourir d’ennui (to die of boredom).
The imperfective aspect indicates an action that has been carried out even if it is
interrupted before its end. The action only has to be started, and it can be stopped at
any moment.
In the sentence Caroline dort au premier étage (Caroline sleeps on the rst oor), if the
action of sleeping is interrupted, this changes nothing since the action of sleeping can
go on inde nitely. The same is true of verbs like vivre (to live), chanter (to sing), marcher
(to walk), regarder (to look at), attendre (to wait), aimer (to love), irrespective of tense
or mood.
Some verbs, e.g. tomber (to fall) can be both perfective and imperfective:
La neige tombe à gros ocons. Snow is falling in big akes. (imperfective)
Le vieillard tombe. The old man falls. (perfective)
8.6.4 Aspect in auxiliary verbs
Use of the auxiliary verb être in certain expressions:
aspect auxiliary / semi-
auxiliary
expressions
English examples
duration (in
the act of)
être en train de
être occupé à +
in nitive
to be + ing
to be busy +
ing
Il est occupé à remplir sa feuille
d’impôts.
He is busy lling in his tax form.
imminence,
near future
être sur le point de /
en passe de +
in nitive
to be about to Les équipes de France et d’Angleterre
sont sur le point de jouer.
The French and English teams are
about to play.
VERBS 1
VERBS 1
197
aspect auxiliary / semi-
auxiliary
expressions
English examples
obligation être à + in nitive to have to be Les règles de jeu sont à corriger ou à
revoir entièrement.
The rules of the game have to be
corrected or reviewed entirely.
Use of semi-auxiliaries:
aspect semi-auxiliary
expressions
English examples
immediate or
near future
aller + in nitive to be going to Laissez ces livres, je vais les ranger
dans la bibliothèque.
Leave those books. I’m going to
put them back in the library.
progressive
evolution /
development
aller + -ant
(present participle
not preceded by
en)
to go +
present
participle
La crise va croissant; ses réserves
vont diminuant.
The crisis is growing; their
reserves are dwindling.
immediate /
recent past
venir de + in nitive just + past
tense
On vient de lui annoncer la
nouvelle !
They’ve just told him the news!
beginning se mettre à +
in nitive,
commencer à / de +
in nitive
to start + ing Les équipes de France et
d’Angleterre ont commencé à
jouer.
The French and English teams
have begun to play.
end nir de / cesser de +
in nitive
to stop + ing Les équipes de France et
d’Angleterre ont ni de jouer.
The French and English teams
have nished playing.
The use of semi-auxiliaries such as faillir + in nitive, manquer de + in nitive:
Il a failli rater son train. He almost missed his train.
Il a manqué de tomber sur la voie. He almost fell on the line.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
198
Verbs in context
Souvent, quand M. Madeleine passait (1) dans une rue, calme, affectueux, entouré
des bénédictions de tous, il arrivait (2) qu’un homme de haute taille, vêtu d’une
redingote gris de fer, armé d’une grosse canne et coiffé d’un chapeau rabattu, se
retournait (3) brusquement derrière lui, et le suivait (4) des yeux jusqu’à ce qu’il eût
disparu (5), croisant les bras, secouant lentement la tête, et haussant sa lèvre
supérieure avec sa lèvre inférieure jusqu’à son nez, sorte de grimace signifi cative qui
pourrait se traduire (6) par : « Mais qu’est-ce que c’est que cet homme-là ?-Pour
sûr je l’ai vu (7) quelque part.[…] »
Ce personnage, grave d’une gravité presque menaçante, était de ceux qui, même
rapidement entrevus, préoccupent l’observateur.
Il se nommait (6) Javert, et il était de la police.
Il remplissait à Montreuil-sur-mer les fonctions pénibles, mais utiles, d’inspecteur. Il
n’avait (8) pas vu les commencements de Madeleine. Javert devait (9) le poste qu’il
occupait à la protection de M. Chabouillet, […] préfet de police à Paris. Quand
Javert était arrivé (10) à Montreuil-sur-mer, la fortune du grand manufacturier
était déjà faite (11), et le père Madeleine était devenu (10) monsieur Madeleine.
Certains offi ciers de police ont une physionomie à part et qui se complique (6) d’un
air de bassesse mêlé à un air d’autorité. Javert avait cette physionomie, moins la
bassesse.
Dans notre conviction, si les âmes étaient (12) visibles aux yeux, on verrait
distinctement cette chose étrange que chacun des individus de l’espèce humaine
correspond (13) à quelqu’une des espèces de la création animale; et l’on pourrait
reconnaître aisément cette vérité à peine entrevue par le penseur (14), que, depuis
l’huître jusqu’à l’aigle, depuis le porc jusqu’au tigre, tous les animaux sont dans
l’homme et que chacun d’eux est dans un homme. Quelquefois même plusieurs
d’entre eux à la fois.
[…]
Maintenant, si l’on admet un moment avec nous que dans tout homme il y a une
des espèces animales de la création, il nous sera (12) facile de dire ce que c’était que
l’offi cier de paix Javert.
Les paysans asturiens sont convaincus que dans toute portée de louve il y a un
chien, lequel est tué (11) par la mère (14), sans quoi en grandissant il dévorerait les
autres petits.
Donnez une face humaine à ce chien fi ls d’une louve, et ce sera Javert.
Extract from Les Misérables
(Part I, Book 5, Chapter 5) by Victor Hugo
VERBS 1
VERBS 1
199
1 passait intransitive verb [8.3.2]; imperfective (of duration) [8.6.1]
2 il arrivait impersonal verb [8.5]
3 se retournait pronominal verb [8.4]
4 suivait uncompleted aspect [8.6.1]
5 eût disparu completed aspect [8.6.1]
6 se traduire
se nommait
se complique
pronominal verbs with passive meaning [8.4.1]
7 ai vu transitive verb with direct object [8.3.1]; auxiliary avoir [8.2.2]
8 avait auxiliary verb avoir [8.2.2]
9 devait double transitive verb [8.3.1]
10 était arrivé
était devenu
verbs conjugated with auxiliary être [8.2.2]
11 était
faite
est tué
passive verbs [8.2.2] [8.2.3]
12 étaient
sera
être as copula [8.2.1]
13 correspond transitive verb followed by indirect object [8.3.1]
14 par le penseur
par la mère
agents of passive verbs (
être understood
before par le penseur)
[8.2.3]
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
200
Exercises
1 Fill the gaps with the verbs listed below:
Write the verbs in the tenses indicated, not forgetting to use the correct
preposition where necessary.
Say whether the verbs are (1) transitive with a direct object, (2) transitive with
an indirect object, (3) intransitive or (4) double transitive, putting a tick in the
appropriate box.
Verb Tense Example 1 2 3 4
1. aller present Ils Londres ce samedi
2. penser present
Nous vacances
3. poster compound
past /
perfect
Tu la lettre hier ?
4. avoir
besoin
present
Je rien pour l’instant
5. dédicacer compound
past /
perfect
Elle son livre / sa lle
6. voyager compound
past /
perfect
Nous dans toute
l’Europe
7. passer present
Je mes vacances en
France
8. jouer present
Est-ce que tu échecs ?
9. jouer present
Est-ce que vous piano ?
10. travailler present
Il le bois
2 Put into the passive voice:
1. On a appelé les étudiants par leur nom.
2. On les a installés dans différentes salles d’examen.
3. Les surveillants ont contrôlé les identités.
VERBS 1
VERBS 1
201
4. Puis, ils ont décacheté les enveloppes.
5. et ils ont distribué les sujets.
6. On a autorisé une bouteille d’eau par table.
7. On avait mis tous les portables dans une boîte en entrant.
8. et on avait laissé les vestes aux porte-manteaux.
9. Le règlement n’autorisait pas les étudiants à sortir avant une heure.
10. Un étudiant rendit sa copie bien avant les autres.
3 Complete the sentences using the pronominal verbs in the present or
compound past, according to the context:
Tick in the relevant box say if the pronominal verbs below are (1) re exive, (2)
reciprocal or (3) passive in meaning:
Verb Example 1 2 3
1. Se dégrader La situation
2. Se saluer
Ils ne … pas
3. Se battre
Ils comme des chiffonniers.*
4. Se voir
De tels événements rarement.
5. Se
demander
Elle ce qu’elle va faire.
6. S’entraider
Elles chaque fois qu’elles le peuvent.
7. S’appeler
Nous Claude tous les deux.
8. Se chercher
Elle un emploi convenable.
* to ght like cat and dog (chiffonniers = scavengers)
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
202
4 Pronominal verbs
Complete the following questions, using indicative tenses and the persons indicated
between brackets:
1. À quelle heure (se réveiller, 2nd person plural, compound past) ?
2. Quand (se lever, 1st person plural, compound past) ?
3. À quel moment (se doucher, 1st person plural, imperfect) ?
4. Quand (se sécher les cheveux, 3rd person plural, future) ?
5. Quand (se maquiller, 2nd person singular, imperfect) ?
6. Quand (se brosser les dents, 3rd person singular, compound past) ?
7. Quand (s’habiller, 1st person singular, future) ?
8. Quand (se mettre en route, 2nd person plural, compound past) ?
9. Quand (s’engouffrer dans le métro, 3rd person plural, pluperfect) ?
10. Quand (s’asseoir à son bureau, 2nd person singular, pluperfect) ?
5 Complete the sentences using the impersonal verbs between brackets,
using an appropriate tense:
1. de sauver l’euro. [s’agir]
2. Pour cela de s’entendre entre pays de la zone euro. [convenir]
3. que la tâche sera rude. [être clair]
4. parfois que l’unanimité se soit faite autour de certaines questions.
[arriver]
5. Mais que la mésentente entre Européens est la norme. [aller de soi]
6. beaucoup d’eau sous les ponts avant d’atteindre l’harmonie entre
Européens. [couler]
7. un temps où l’enthousiasme pour l’idée européenne était grand. [être]
VERBS 1
VERBS 1
203
8. Mais ce temps est révolu et --------------- surtout de la déception dans les cœurs. [y
avoir]
9. --------------- beaucoup de patience. [falloir]
10. --------------- que les Européens comprennent qu’--------------- de sauver l’euro au plus vite.
[être important / être. nécessaire]
204
VERBS 2 : TENSES OF THE 9
INDICATIVE
9.1 Tenses
Beneath a verb like vive in Vive la démocratie ! (Long live democracy!) complex elements lie
hidden: each of these elements in uences the form of the verb. The same is true of all
verbs: to conjugate a verb like vive is to answer a certain number of questions, such as:
What is the
speaker’s intention?
the mood The action is not a
reality but a strong
wish.
subjunctive
At what moment in
time does the action
occur?
the tense The moment the
action is uttered.
present
What is the subject
of the action?
the person a concept third person
Are there several
subjects or just one?
number a single subject singular
Does the subject
carry out the action
or is the action
done to him?
voice The subject carries
out the action.
active voice
In the previous chapter we have seen that it is traditional in France to treat the verb as
having seven moods. According to this system, each of these moods includes a number of
tenses.
The difference between je nis (present indicative) and (que) je nisse (present subjunctive)
does not lie in the tense – in each case the tense is the same – but in the intention of the
speaker (the mood).
Mood
The action of the verb is variable: it can, for example, be real, wished for, put in doubt,
etc. These different ways of expressing the verbal action are called moods. Moods
express the intention or the attitude of the speaker to the action, or to the different ways
in which the action may be carried out.
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
205
The number of moods in French varies according to different grammarians. Many
grammars say that there are seven, four of which are ‘personal’: the indicative, the
subjunctive, the imperative and the conditional, and three ‘impersonal’: the in nitive, the
participle and the gerund.
Other grammarians, however, do not consider the impersonal moods as moods, and
treat the conditional as a tense of the indicative rather than a mood.
For our purposes, we will describe the verb according to the latter view and present the
verb in French as having three moods: the indicative, the subjunctive and the imperative.
The in nitive (see 10.2)
The in nitive is the ‘non-in ected’ form of the verb, i.e. it is not marked for person or
number. It can be recognized by its ending, either -er, -(o)ir, or -re : généraliser (to
generalize), abolir (to abolish), naître (to be born), concevoir (to conceive).
Tenses
The tenses are the forms that are taken by verbs to situate the action in time. These
different forms of the verb are called the conjugations.
The verbal action can be situated:
at the moment of speaking: the present tense
Regarde, regarde ! C’est Catherine ! Elle passe à
la télé !
Look, look. It’s Catherine. She’s on TV!
Before the moment of speaking: the past tenses
Tu as vu Catherine ? Elle est passée à la télé
hier !
Did you see Catherine? She was on TV
yesterday!
After the moment of speaking: the future tenses
Catherine passera probablement à la télé
demain.
Catherine will probably be on TV tomorrow.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
206
Time and tense
Imperfect
Simple and
Compound
Past
Pluperfect
PRESENT
Compound
Future
Future
The chart represents graphically a ‘timeline’ of tenses which we describe in this chapter. The present
tense communicates what is happening now. The past tenses represent different moments before
present time: the pluperfect is a ‘before-past’ tense, the simple and compound past both express a
de ned moment in past time and the imperfect describes past time in its extension. Beyond the present
lies the future, which is preceded in the sequence by the compound future, a tense that conveys the
future as a completed action.
The tenses are sometimes used with an auxiliary verb, sometimes not. We speak of
simple tenses and compound tenses. For compound tenses, there is a choice between the
auxiliary verbs avoir and être. The majority of verbs employ avoir; être is used for: (a)
pronominal verbs; (b) about 20 verbs, principally of movement (aller [to go], venir [to
come], entrer [to go in], sortir [to go out], etc.); (c) verbs in the passive voice.
For the majority of simple tenses there is a corresponding compound tense:
Simple tenses Compound tenses
Indicative Present tu dors Compound past tu as dormi
Imperfect tu dormais Pluperfect tu avais dormi
Future tu dormiras Compound
future perfect
tu auras dormi
Conditional tu dormirais Compound
conditional
tu aurais dormi
Subjunctive Present que tu dormes Past que tu aies dormi
Imperative Present dors ! Past aie dormi !
Participle Present dormant Past dormi
In nitive Present dormir Past avoir dormi
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
207
The compound tenses are used for two meanings:
completion: every compound form shows a completed action.
prior actions: the compound form expresses an action prior to one that is in the
process of being carried out.
Après qu’il aura ni son rapport, il le
présentera.
After he has nished his report, he will
present it.
Après qu’il a ni son rapport, il le présente. After he has nished his report,
he presents it.
Après qu’il eut ni son rapport, il le présenta. After he had nished his report,
he presented it.
9.2 The radical and verb endings
9.2.1 Expression of mood, tense, person, number and voice
The mood, tense, person, number and voice are expressed:
By the endings of the verbs
In order to conjugate a verb, it has to change its form.
In the following forms: je parle, nous parlons, vous parliez, tu parlais
one part of the verb is xed: parl-
one part is variable: -e, -ons, -iez, -ais.
The xed part is the radical of the verb and the variable parts are the endings. The
variable part changes according to the tense, person and mood.
The radical is the part that carries the meaning of the verb. The majority of verbs
have one radical, and this is true in particular for regular verbs of the rst and
second groups.
chant- is the radical of chanter
n- is the radical of nir.
Certain verbs have irregular radicals in the various tenses:
v-, ir- and all- are all radicals used in conjugating aller,
sai-, sav-, sach-, saur- are all radicals used in conjugating savoir.
Each mood and tense and each of the three groups of verbs have speci c endings.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
208
Changes in the form of verbs take place:
when the radical is modi ed
by the addition of an insertion called an in x between the radical and the ending.
In the following forms:
nir (to nish): je nis, nous nissons
couvrir (to cover): je couvre, nous couvrons
-iss- appears in the middle of nissons, but not in couvrons.
by variation in the spelling of the radical
In the following form:
tenir (to hold): je tiens, nous tenons, the spelling of the radical changes from ten- to tien-.
by a change in the radical
In the following forms:
aller (to go): je vais, nous allons, nous irons : the radical all- disappears completely, to be
replaced by v- or ir-, depending on the tense. This type of irregularity can be found in
English too, for example: I go, I went; I am, I was.
with the use of auxiliary verbs
The auxiliary verbs avoir and être are used to form compound tenses, and the auxiliary
être to form the passive:
J’arrive > Je suis arrivé I arrive > I (have) arrived
Je choisis > J’ai choisi I choose > I have chosen / I chose
Il pleut > Il a plu It’s raining > It (has) rained
Elle annonce > Elle est annoncée She announces > She is announced
9.2.2 Verb endings
-ait is the ending which marks the third person singular of the imperfect tense or of the
conditional: il aimait (he used to love), il aimerait (he would love).
Unlike the radical, verb endings present few irregularities. They vary according to group,
from the present indicative to the imperative, but they are the same for all verbs and all
groups in, for example, the conditional or the subjunctive.
There are a few verbs which do not have a form in certain tenses or persons. Clore (to
close), for example, has no form for the simple past, the imperfect indicative or the
imperfect subjunctive.
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
209
9.2.3 Defective verbs
Verbs such as bruire (to buzz), choir (to fall), échoir (to fall due), gésir (to lie, be at rest),
paître (to graze), quérir (to fetch) and traire (to milk) are called ‘defective’ because they do
not conjugate in all forms of the verb.
9.2.4 The three groups of verbs
Verbs ending in -er
These verbs have a regular conjugation except for certain verbs ending in -ayer, -cer, -ger,
-eler, -eter, e.g. payer (to pay), commencer (to begin), manger (to eat), appeler (to call), acheter
(to buy). Aller is an exception.
The -er group of verbs represents 90% of all verbs.
Verbs ending in -ir which form their present participle in -issant
These verbs have:
an in x -iss- between the radical and the ending in certain persons of certain tenses;
a regular and stable radical, with the exception of haïr (to hate) and eurir (to
bloom);
a past participle that ends in -i, with the exception of maudire (to curse), which
belongs to this group despite ending in -ire: past participle, maudit.
The verbs in this group have a regular conjugation: nir (to nish), abolir (to abolish),
choisir (to choose).
A group ending in re, -oir and -ir with a present participle ending in -ant (not in
-issant)
Many of these verbs are irregular, e.g. faire (to do), dire (to say), venir (to come), pouvoir (to
be able), exclure (to exclude).
Aller also belongs to this group.
Être and avoir do not belong to any group; their conjugation has a number of features
which are peculiar to them.
9.2.5 The indicative mood
The indicative mood presents facts as real or certain: Il est sûr qu’il viendra à l’heure. (It’s
certain that he will come on time.)
It is the mood that presents a fact as it is envisaged by the speaker. In conversation, it is
by far the most used of the moods.
In a subordinate clause after que the indicative can be used if the action is considered to
be certain. If, however, there is doubt or uncertainty in the mind of the speaker the
subjunctive must be used (see Chapter 11):
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
210
Il est clair qu’il viendra (indicative). It’s clear that he’ll come.
Il est possible qu’il vienne (subjunctive). It’s possible that he’ll come (perhaps he’ll
come).
Tenses of the indicative
The following are the indicative tenses:
1 present tense
7 past tenses:
2 simple: imperfect, simple past
3 compound: compound past, pluperfect, past anterior
2 other compound past tenses: double compound past, compound pluperfect
2 future tenses:
1 simple: future
1 compound: compound future
2 conditional tenses
1 simple: conditional
1 compound: the compound conditional
Each compound form expresses a previous action, un nished in relation to the
corresponding simple form. In Quand elle a (avait, eut, aura) dîné, elle regarde (regardait,
regarda, regardera) la télévision. [lit. When she has (had, had, will have) dined, she watches
(watched, watched, will watch) television].
Each double compound form corresponds to an un nished action in relation to the
corresponding compound form, e.g. Quand elle a eu dîné, elle a regardé la télévision (When
she had dined, she watched the television).
9.3 The present tense
This is the tense that is employed most in the spoken language. It refers to actions that
take place in present time. In English there are two forms: ‘He speaks’ and ‘He is
speaking’.
The rst of these forms is used to talk about actions which are habitual or are generally
or always true:
‘He goes to church on Sundays.’ ‘The moon goes round the earth.’
The second form, called the progressive or continuous present, is usually for actions
which are happening at the time of speaking:
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
211
‘He’s running away.’ ‘They are not talking sense’.
Unlike English, French does not possess a progressive form; it has only one form to
express both of the above ideas.
9.3.1 Formation
1st
group: gagner (to earn, win)
number/ person radical endings conjugated verb
singular Je gagn -e Je gagne
Tu gagn -es Tu gagnes
Il / elle gagn -e Il / elle gagne
plural Nous gagn -ons Nous gagnons
Vous gagn -ez Vous gagnez
Ils / elles gagn -ent Ils / elles gagnent
Orthographic and phonetic changes
Some verbs in the 1st group have orthographic and phonetic changes.
ending verb change example
-cer placer (to place),
prononcer (to
pronounce)
c > ç before a and o placer > nous plaçons
-e*er mener (to lead),
lever (to raise)
They carry a grave accent on the
e before a silent e.
Je lève >
Nous levons
Je mène
-é*er espérer (to hope),
préférer (to
prefer), sécher (to
dry)
posséder (to
possess)
assiéger (to
besiege)
e or é in the penultimate syllable
changes to è when the consonant
is followed by a silent e.
posséder >
Je possède
Nous possédons
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
212
ending verb change example
-ger interroger (to
question), bouger
(to move)
Insert e before a and o. bouger > nous
bougeons
-eler or
-eter
appeler (to call),
jeter (to throw)
Double the l or the t before a
silent e.
appeler> j’appelle
jeter > je jette
Exceptions
acheter (to buy),
geler (to freeze),
congeler (to
freeze), peler (to
peel), marteler (to
beat), modeler (to
model)
These verbs do not double the
consonant but they carry a grave
accent on the e before a silent e.
J’achète
Nous achetons
-guer
-quer
naviguer (to sail),
fabriquer
(tomake,
manufacture)
Keep the u throughout the
conjugation.
Je navigue
Nous naviguons
-oyer
or
-uyer
nettoyer (to
clean), ennuyer (to
bore)
Change the y into i before a
silent e.
Je nettoie
J’essuie
-ayer payer (to pay) There are two possibilities. These
verbs can either maintain the y or
change it into i before a silent e.
Je paye
Je paie
2nd
group: nir (to nish)
number and person radical in x endings conjugated verb
singular Je n -- -is Je nis
Tu n -- -is Tu nis
Il / elle n -- -it Il / elle nit
plural Nous n -iss- -ons Nous nissons
Vous
n -iss- -ez Vous nissez
Ils / elles n -iss- -ent Ils / elles nissent
Note haïr loses its diaeresis in the rst three persons of the singular of the present
indicative: Je hais, tu hais, il hait, nous haïssons, vous haïssez, ils haïssent.
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213
3rd
group: perdre (to lose)
number and person radical endings conjugated verb
singular Je perd -s Je perds
Tu perd -s Tu perds
Il / elle perd - Il / elle perd
plural Nous perd -ons Nous perdons
Vous perd -ez Vous perdez
Ils / elles perd -ent Ils / elles perdent
Auxiliary verb avoir
number and person radical endings conjugated verb
singular J’ ai - J’ai
Tu a -s Tu as
Il / elle a - Il / elle a
plural Nous av -ons Nous avons
Vous av -ez Vous avez
Ils / elles o -nt Ils / elles ont
Auxiliary verb être
number and person radical endings conjugated verb
singular Je sui -s Je suis
Tu e -s Tu es
Il / elle es -t Il / elle est
plural Nous s -ommes Nous sommes
Vous êt -es Vous êtes
Ils / elles s -ont Ils / elles sont
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
214
Note
(s’)asseoir / (s’)assoir
S’asseoir (to sit down) is conjugated in two different ways: je m’assieds, which is more
literary, and more frequent than je m’assois. The opposite occurs in Quebec, where the
radical assoi- is more frequent. The two roots are found in all tenses and moods. S’assire
also exists, but it has almost disappeared; it can be heard in some regions of France.
je m’assieds
tu t’assieds
il, elle s’assied
nous nous asseyons
vous vous asseyez
ils, elles s’asseyent
je m’assois
tu t’assois
il, elle s’assoit
nous nous assoyons
vous vous assoyez
ils, elles s’assoient
The orthographic changes of 1990 recommend that this verb is written s’assoir (with no
change in pronunciation).
9.3.2 Uses of the present tense
KEY POINT
The present tense describes a state of affairs which exists at the time of speaking, and
which is held to be true by the speaker.
Tiens ! Ils passent les Beatles à la radio. Why, the Beatles are on the radio!
Il fait beau aujourd’hui. The weather’s ne today.
The present tense describes:
general truths which have always existed and will always exist, maxims, sayings,
de nitions:
Deux et deux font quatre. Two and two make four.
L’appétit vient en mangeant. Eating stimulates the appetite.
La Terre tourne autour du Soleil. The earth goes round the sun.
repeated actions, accompanied by an adverb:
Il joue souvent au football. He often plays football.
Le samedi il va au pub. On Saturdays he goes to the pub.
habits or tendencies, without reference to time:
Son chat griffe. His cat scratches.
Il maltraite son chien. He ill-treats his dog.
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215
a past that is very recent or linked to the present:
Je le quitte à l’instant ! I just left him!
Il est marié depuis 10 ans. He has been married for 10 years. [and still is
married now]
a future action:
Il joue au foot samedi. He’s playing football on Saturday.
L’an prochain il commence un doctorat. He begins his doctorate next year.
an event situated entirely in the past. This is called the historical present:
En 1789, la France connaît une Révolution
importante.
In 1789 France experiences / experienced an
important Revolution.
prophetic utterances:
Au train où vont les choses, dans 50 ans il n’y a
plus de forêts en Europe.
The way things are going, in 50 years there
will be no more forests in Europe.
9.4 The imperfect tense
When we talk about the past in English we can choose between three different forms of
the verb:
if we want to describe what we did last Saturday we might say ‘We swam in the sea last
Saturday’.
if we want to stress the continuous nature of this action like we might say ‘We were
swimming in the sea’.
In order to convey the idea that the same action was repeated or habitual, we use the
auxiliary verb ‘used to’ or ‘would’: ‘We used to / would swim in the sea.
The latter two forms can have a different meaning from the rst one. In order to express
continuous or habitual actions in the past in French the imperfect tense is used.
9.4.1 Formation
The same radical and the same endings are used for all verb groups. The endings are:
-ais,- ais, -ait, -ions, -iez, -aient.
Note that:
there is an -i- in the rst and second persons plural, which distinguishes the imperfect
from the present indicative:
nous traduisions, vous abolissiez, vous veniez, nous avions, vous étiez
the in x -iss- appears in all persons plural of verbs in the second group (-ir)
The conjugation of the imperfect presents few dif culties. The radical of the verb is the
same as that of the rst person plural of the present indicative. The only exception is être.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
216
1st group: gagner
number and person radical endings conjugated verb
singular Je gagn -ais Je gagnais
Tu gagn -ais Tu gagnais
Il / elle gagn -ait Il / elle gagnait
plural Nous gagn -ions Nous gagnions
Vous gagn -iez Vous gagniez
Ils / elles gagn -aient Ils / elles gagnaient
2nd
group: nir
number and person radical in x endings conjugated verb
singular Je n -iss- -ais Je nissais
Tu n -iss- -ais Tu nissais
Il / elle n -iss- -ait Il / elle nissait
plural Nous n -iss- -ions Nous nissions
Vous
n -iss- -iez Vous nissiez
Ils / elles n -iss- -aient Ils / elles nissaient
3rd
group: perdre
number and person radical endings conjugated verb
singular Je perd -ais Je perdais
Tu perd -ais Tu perdais
Il / elle perd -ait Il / elle perdait
plural Nous perd -ions Nous perdions
Vous perd -iez Vous perdiez
Ils / elles perd -aient Ils / elles perdaient
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217
Auxiliary verb avoir
number and person radical endings conjugated verb
singular J’ av -ais J’avais
Tu av -ais Tu avais
Il / elle av -ait Il / elle avait
plural Nous av -ions Nous avions
Vous av -iez Vous aviez
Ils / elles av -aient Ils / elles avaient
Auxiliary verb être
number and person radical endings conjugated verb
singular J’ ét -ais J’ étais
Tu ét -ais Tu étais
Il / elle ét -ait Il / Elle était
plural Nous ét -ions Nous étions
Vous ét -iez Vous étiez
Ils / elles ét -aient Ils / elles étaient
9.4.2 Orthographic and phonetic changes
Some verbs in the 1st group have orthographic and phonetic changes:
radical ending
in -i, -y, -ill or
-gn
se mé er (to
mistrust), gagner (to
earn, win), voir (to
see), habiller (to
dress)
The [i] sound of the rst
and second persons plural
blends with the -ll- or -i of
the end of the radical and is
therefore not pronounced.
It is important not to forget
to write the i.
habillions / habilliez
voyions / voyiez
nous méfiions / vous
méfiiez
gagnions / gagniez
-cer placer (to place),
prononcer (to
pronounce)
c > ç before a placer > elle plaçait
-ger interroger (to
question), bouger (to
move)
Insert an e before a. bouger > il bougeait
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
218
-eler or -eter The l and the t are not
doubled in the imperfect (cf.
present).
appeler> j'appelais
jeter > tu jetais
-guer -quer naviguer (to sail),
fabriquer (to make,
manufacture)
Keep the u, even before a. Je naviguais
9.4.3 Uses of the imperfect
KEY POINT
The imperfect describes a past action which was taking place; its beginning and end are not
clearly de ned:
J’allais à la plage tous les jours. I used to go to the beach every day.
The imperfect describes:
a past action seen in its duration, which is not de ned or limited by time:
Il aimait se promener avec sa petite lle. He liked going for a walk with his grand-
daughter.
Il travaillait pour la SNCF. He worked for the SNCF.
a scene, a picture or a setting:
C’était la n de l’automne. Il neigeait. Au loin,
la montagne s’estompait derrière le
tourbillon incessant des
ocons.
It was the end of autumn. It was snowing. In
the distance the mountain was becoming
blurred in the unceasing whirl of the
snow akes.
a background against which an event occurs:
Il lisait quand soudain le téléphone sonna. He was reading when suddenly the phone
rang.
Il faisait nuit, les rues étaient désertes. Un cri
retentit.
It was night, the streets were deserted. A cry
rang out.
a habitual action:
Tous les soirs grand-père fumait sa pipe au coin
du feu pendant que grand-mère faisait des
mots croisés.
Every evening grandpa used to / would smoke
his pipe at the reside while grandma did
the crossword.
The historical or
narrative imperfect describes a series of actions at a precise moment in
the past. It could often be replaced by a simple past or a compound past, but the
imperfect slows the action and gives it more breadth and presence than the simple past or
a compound past. The idea of duration that characterizes the imperfect allows us to
glimpse the consequences of an action:
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219
En 1944 les troupes débarquaient en
Normandie.
In 1944 the troops disembarked in
Normandy.
Tout de suite après la guerre ils émigraient en
France.
Immediately after the war they emigrated to
France.
an action which takes place after another moment in the past:
Le lendemain, il partait pour les Antilles. The next day he was leaving for the West
Indies.
an action which almost took place but was prevented and therefore did not occur. An
alternative would be the compound conditional:
Un point de plus et il sortait (serait sorti) major
de sa promotion.
One mark more and he would have come
rst in his year.
Sans votre présence d’esprit, cet élève se
blessait (se serait blessé) sérieusement.
Without your presence of mind, this pupil
would have been seriously injured.
polite utterances which are an alternative for a blunter present tense:
J’allais vous demander la permission de
m’absenter une heure ou deux.
I was going to ask permission to be absent for
an hour or two.
Notes
The sequence of tenses
After a verb in the past tense, according to the sequence of tenses, the verb in a
subordinate clause is in the imperfect tense:
Joseph t signe qu’il partait. Joseph motioned that he was leaving.
The imperfect in conditional clauses
The imperfect is used after a hypothetical si. It expresses a present or future action:
Si j’avais les moyens je voyagerais en 1re classe. If I had the means, I’d travel rst class.
The imperfect with si can express:
regret: S’il pouvait revenir sur sa décision ! If only he could go back on his decision!
a wish: Ah ! Si j’étais riche ! Ah! If I were rich!
a suggestion: Et si nous allions nous coucher les enfants ! How about us going to bed,
children!
9.5 The compound past
In the sentence ‘She has lost her passport’, the verb ‘has lost’ is in the compound past
tense. This tense combines the auxiliary verb (has) and the past participle of the verb
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
220
(‘lost’). In English this tense is used to describe actions that have begun in the past and
carry through to the present. What we are interested in is that the passport isn’t here
now (see 9.2.1).
9.5.1 Formation
avoir or être in the present indicative plus the past participle:
1st group: gagner
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ ai gagné j’ai gagné
Tu as gagné tu as gagné
Il / elle a gagné il / elle a gagné
plural Nous avons gagné nous avons gagné
Vous avez gagné vous avez gagné
Ils / elles ont gagné ils / elles ont gagné
2nd
group: nir
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ ai n i j’ai ni
Tu as n i tu as ni
Il / elle a n i il / elle a ni
plural Nous avons n i nous avons ni
Vous avez n i vous avez ni
Ils / elles ont n i ils / elles ont
ni
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221
3rd
group: descendre
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular Je suis descendu(e) je suis descendu(e)
Tu es descendu(e) tu es descendu(e)
Il / elle est descendu(e) il / elle est descendu(e)
plural Nous sommes descendu(e)(s) nous sommes descendu(e)(s)
Vous êtes descendu(e)(s) vous êtes descendu(e)(s)
Ils / elles sont
descendu(e)s ils / elles sont descendu(e)s
Auxiliary verb avoir
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ ai eu j’ai eu
Tu as eu tu as eu
Il / elle aeu il / elle a eu
plural Nous avons eu nous avons eu
Vous avez eu vous avez eu
Ils / elles ont eu ils / elles ont eu
Auxiliary verb être
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ ai été j’ai été
Tu as été tu as été
Il / elle a été il / elle a été
plural Nous avons été nous avons été
Vous avez été vous avez été
Ils / elles ont été ils / elles ont été
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
222
9.5.2 Conjugation of verbs with être
Over 20 intransitive verbs as follows:
verb past participle
aller allé to go
apparaître apparu to appear
arriver arrivé to arrive
décéder décédé to die
demeurer demeuré to remain
descendre descendu to go down
devenir devenu to become
entrer entré to go in
monter monté to go up
verb past participle
mourir meurt to die
naître né to be born
partir parti to leave
passer
passé to pass by
rester resté to remain
retourner retourné to return
sortir sorti to go out
tomber tombé to fall
venir venu to come
In addition the auxiliary être is used with derivatives of the above verbs, like rentrer (to go
back in), repartir (to set off again), revenir (to come back), parvenir (to reach).
All pronominal verbs (see 8.4).
All verbs in the passive voice (see 8.2.3).
KEY POINTS
In French the compound past tense has two main functions:
it describes past actions which are completed:
De Gaulle a démissionné en 1969 et est mort
en 1970.
De Gaulle resigned in 1969 and died in
1970.
Il a travaillé comme postier dans sa jeunesse. He worked as a postman in his youth.
it also describes past actions which carry through to the present:
Zut ! J’ai perdu mon passeport. Damn! I’ve lost my passport.
9.5.3 Uses of the compound past
The compound past expresses:
an action begun in the past which continues into the present:
J’ai déja ramassé 2 paniers de champignons
depuis midi.
I’ve already gathered two baskets of
mushrooms since midday.
J’ai acheté un nouvel ordinateur. I’ve bought a new computer.
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223
in the spoken language, an action situated entirely in the past which would normally
be in the simple past:
Molière et sa troupe ont connu des débuts
dif ciles.
Molière and his company had a dif cult
beginning.
an action in the near future that is described as already completed (often with a
compound future meaning), with a time reference:
J’ai peint (aurai peint) ce mur dans une heure. I will have painted this wall in an hour.
J’ai pratiquement ni mon livre. I practically nished my book. (I’ll have
nished it soon)
understatement in negative sentences:
À cette allure, on est pas encore rentrés ! At this rate, we won’t be back for quite a
while yet. (to say that we are still a long
way from being back)
Note
The compound past in conditional clauses
The compound past is used after conditional si to express a future action which happens
before another future action:
Si à 8 heures il n’a pas téléphoné c’est moi qui
l’appelle.
If he hasn’t phoned by 8 o’clock, I’ll be the
one to call him.
9.6 The simple past
In English the simple past tense refers to actions that have been completed in the past:
e.g. ‘France won the World Cup in 1998’. The verb consists of a single word, ‘won’, and
the date given con rms that the event is over and done with.
In French, one of two tenses may be used to express a completed past action: the
compound past (see 9.5) or the simple past.
9.6.1 Formation
The simple past is formed from the radical plus the endings below.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
224
1st group: gagner
number/ person radical endings conjugated verb
singular Je gagn -ai je gagnai
Tu gagn -as tu gagnas
Il / elle gagn -a il / elle gagna
plural Nous gagn -âmes nous gagnâmes
Vous gagn -âtes vous gagnâtes
Ils / elles gagn -èrent ils / elles gagnèrent
2nd
group: nir
number/ person radical endings conjugated verb
singular Je n -is je nis
Tu n -is tu nis
Il / elle n -it il / elle nit
plural Nous n -îmes nous nîmes
Vous n -îtes vous
nîtes
Ils / elles n -irent ils / elles nirent
3rd
group: perdre
number/ person radical endings conjugated verb
singular Je perd -is je perdis
Tu perd -is tu perdis
Il / elle perd -it il / elle perdit
plural Nous perd -îmes nous perdîmes
Vous perd -îtes vous perdîtes
Ils / elles perd -irent ils / elles perdirent
Note
For verbs in the third group the vowel of the ending can be either i or u:
nous conclûmes, vous aperçûtes, ils virent, je dus, etc.
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225
Auxiliary verb avoir eu- pronounced /y/
number/ person radical endings conjugated verb
singular J’ e -us j’eus
Tu e -us tu eus
Il / elle e -ut il / elle eut
plural Nous e -ûmes nous eûmes
Vous e -ûtes vous eûtes
Ils / elles e -urent ils / elles eurent
Auxiliary verb être
number/ person radical endings conjugated verb
singular Je f -us je fus
Tu f -us tu fus
Il / elle f -ut il/elle fut
plural Nous f -ûmes nous fûmes
Vous f -ûtes vous fûtes
Ils / elles f -urent ils / elles furent
9.6.2 Uses of the simple past
The simple past is hardly ever employed in the spoken language, where the compound
past takes its place. On the other hand, it is used in the written language, especially in the
third persons singular and plural.
KEY POINT
The simple past expresses a completed past action, with its beginning and end being clearly
de ned, and with no relevance to the present:
Hier ils jouèrent un beau match. Yesterday they played a ne match.
L’avion décolla à 13.30. The plane took off at 13.30.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
226
The simple past
expresses an action that takes place at a particular moment in the past:
J’étais plongé dans mes pensées quand soudain
on m’appela de l’autre coté de la rue.
I was deep in thought when suddenly
somebody called out to me from the other
side of the street.
contrasts with the imperfect, in that it describes a past action without reference to its
duration:
Hier il t des courses. Yesterday he did some shopping.
is the tense used for narrating the past (e.g. in folk tales). It is ideal for describing a
succession of actions, whereas the imperfect describes a number of simultaneous
actions in the past (see 9.7):
À la lecture de la lettre mon sang ne t qu’un
tour. Je pris la plume et lui répondis sur le
champ !
« Nous partîmes cinq cents; mais par un prompt
renfort
Nous nous vîmes trois mille en arrivant au port. »
(Corneille, Le Cid, Acte IV, Scène 3)
On reading the letter my heart missed a
beat. I took up my pen and replied on the
spot! ‘Five hundred of us departed but, soon
reinforced, we were three thousand strong
when we reached the port’.
9.7 The imperfect and the simple past contrasted
The imperfect and the simple past are the tenses most used in narrative texts, but they
contrast fundamentally in their uses.
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227
Imperfect Simple past
Habit / repetition / simultaneity
Repeated, habitual actions.
J’allais volontiers chez grand-père car tous les
soirs il me montrait ses vieilles photographies.
I used to go willingly to my grandfather’s
because every evening he would show me
his old photos.
Successive actions
A succession of actions which build up the
narrative.
Elle prit l’aspirateur, le présenta à mon père,
et dit : ‘À toi maintenant !’ She took the
vacuum cleaner, handed it to my father and
said: ‘It’s your turn now’.
Duration
Actions which last, are drawn out in time.
J’aimais ces journées d’automne où la nature
prenait des couleurs étonnantes. I used to
like those autumn days when nature took
on astonishing colours.
Suddenness, exactitude
A succession of sudden actions which build
up the narrative.
En début d’après-midi une explosion se
produisit et tout le monde se mit à courir
dans tous les sens. At the beginning of the
afternoon there was an explosion and
everyone began to run in all directions.
Background
Evokes a ‘background’ action which
continues in the past, serving as a
framework for a foreground action which
does not last.
Je dormais profondément quand il entra en
claquant la porte. I was fast asleep when he
came in slamming the door.
Foreground
Evokes a single action in the foreground
situated within the background.
Je dormais quand le chien aboya. I was asleep
when the dog barked.
Unlimited
A past action which is evolving, without
time limits.
Je pro tais de la gentillesse de grand-mère
pour avoir des bonbons que maman me
refusait. I would take advantage of my
grandmother’s kindness to have sweets that
mummy wouldn’t give me.
Limited
A past action with a beginning and an end,
happening at a precise moment.
Elle eut juste le temps d’aller acheter les billets
quand il commença à pleuvoir. She had just
enough time to go and buy the tickets when
it began to rain.
9.8 The pluperfect tense
This tense is used to indicate an action which occurred before another action in the past.
The English equivalent is ‘I had (spoken, etc.)’.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
228
9.8.1 Formation
avoir or être in the imperfect tense plus the past participle:
1st group: gagner
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ avais gagné j’avais gagné
Tu avais gagné tu avais gagné
Il / elle avait gagné il / elle avait gagné
plural Nous avions gagné nous avions gagné
Vous aviez gagné vous aviez gagné
Ils / elles avaient gagné ils / elles avaient gagné
2nd
group: nir
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ avais n i j’avais ni
Tu avais n i tu avais ni
Il / elle avait n i il / elle avait ni
plural Nous avions n i nous avions ni
Vous aviez n i vous aviez ni
Ils / elles avaient n i ils / elles avaient
ni
3rd
group: descendre
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ étais descendu(e) j’étais descendu(e)
Tu étais descendu(e) tu étais descendu(e)
Il / elle était descendu(e) il / elle était descendu(e)
plural Nous étions descendu(e)(s) nous étions descendu(e)(s)
Vous étiez descendu(e)(s) vous étiez descendu(e)(s)
Ils / elles étaient descendu(e)s ils / elles étaient descendu(e)s
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229
Auxiliary verb avoir
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ avais eu j’avais eu
Tu avais eu tu avais eu
Il / elle avait eu il / elle avait eu
plural Nous avions eu nous avions eu
Vous aviez eu vous aviez eu
Ils / elles avaient eu ils / elles avaient eu
Auxiliary verb être
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ avais été j’avais été
Tu avais été tu avais été
Il / elle avait été il / elle avait été
plural Nous avions été nous avions été
Vous aviez été vous aviez été
Ils / elles avaient été ils / elles avaient été
KEY POINT
The pluperfect expresses an indeterminate past which took place before another event in
the past:
Il a visité l’Ecosse cette année et il avait visité
l’Irlande l’an dernier.
He visited Scotland this year and he had
visited Ireland the previous year.
Il ne pouvait pas marcher car il s’était blessé
au genou.
He could not walk because he had injured
his knee.
9.8.2 Uses of the pluperfect
Like the imperfect, the pluperfect is used for description:
Il avait plu. On avait plié les parasols et on avait
rentré les tables et les chaises.
It had rained. They had folded the umbrellas
and taken in the tables and chairs.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
230
The pluperfect can refer to a present action that is expressed as if it was in the past:
Bonjour Monsieur le directeur, j’étais venu vous
demander s’il était possible d’avoir une
journée de congé.
lit. Hello, Director, I had come to ask you if it
would be possible to have a day’s leave.
Sequence of tenses:
If the main verb is in a past tense, the verb of the subordinate clause can be in the
pluperfect:
Il a avoué qu’il avait renversé le café sur la
moquette.
He admitted that he had spilt the coffee on
the carpet.
Elle croyait que j’avais menti. She thought that I had lied.
The pluperfect in conditional clauses:
When the subordinate clause introduced by si is in the pluperfect the main clause is in the
conditional perfect:
Si j’avais connu le prix avant j’aurais ré échi à
deux fois.
If I had know the price beforehand I’d have
thought twice about it.
9.9 The past anterior
9.9.1 Formation
avoir or être in the simple past plus the past participle:
1st group: gagner
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ eus gagné j’eus gagné
Tu eus gagné tu eus gagné
Il / elle eut gagné il / elle eut gagné
plural Nous eûmes gagné nous eûmes gagné
Vous eûtes gagné vous eûtes gagné
Ils / elles eurent gagné ils / elles eurent gagné
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
231
2nd
group: nir
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ eus n i j’eus ni
Tu eus n i tu eus ni
Il / elle eut n i il / elle eut ni
plural Nous eûmes n i nous eûmes ni
Vous eûtes n i vous eûtes ni
Ils / elles eurent n i ils / elles eurent
ni
3rd
group: descendre
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular Je fus descendu(e) je fus descendu(e)
Tu fus descendu(e) tu fus descendu(e)
Il / elle fut descendu(e) il / elle fut descendu(e)
plural Nous fûmes descendu(e)(s) nous fûmes descendu(e)(s)
Vous fûtes descendu(e)(s) vous fûtes descendu(e)(s)
Ils / elles furent descendu(e)s ils / elles furent descendu(e)s
Auxiliary verb avoir
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ eus eu j’eus eu
Tu eus eu tu eus eu
Il / elle eut eu il / elle eut eu
plural Nous eûmes eu nous eûmes eu
Vous eûtes eu vous eûtes eu
Ils / elles eurent eu ils / elles eurent eu
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
232
Auxiliary verb être
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ eus été j’eus été
Tu eus été tu eus été
Il / elle eut été il / elle eut été
plural Nous eûmes été nous eûmes été
Vous eûtes été vous eûtes été
Ils / elles eurent été ils / elles eurent été
KEY POINT
The past anterior, like the pluperfect, is a pre-past tense: it describes a single action
happening before another past action which is usually in the simple past tense. This tense
occurs only in formal French:
Dès qu’il se fut changé, il se servit un verre et
s’installa devant la télévision.
As soon as he had got changed he poured
himself a drink and sat in front of the
television.
9.9.2 Use
Like the simple past with which it is generally associated, the past anterior is used less
and less in modern French.
The past anterior is frequently used after time conjunctions like quand (when), dès que (as
soon as), lorsque (when), après que (after), with a verb in the main clause in the simple
past, but also, less frequently, in another past tense:
Après qu’il eut soigneusement fermé la porte, il
se dirigea vers l’arrêt de bus.
After he had shut the door carefully, he went
to the bus stop.
Dès que le public se fut installé, il prit la
parole.
As soon as the audience was settled he
spoke.
9.10 The future tense
We use the future tense to express future actions. In English we place the auxiliary verb
‘will’ or ‘shall’ before the verb to form the future, as in ‘It will / It’ll be hot today’ and
‘We will / We’ll arrive at 7.30’. Future actions can also be expressed by the progressive
form of ‘to go’ plus the in nitive of the verb, as in ‘It’s going to be hot today’ and ‘We
are going to arrive at 7.30’.
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
233
9.10.1 Formation
The in nitive plus the endings of avoir in the present indicative, except for irregular verbs
(see Verb Tables, pp. 393–417).
1st group: gagner
number/ person in nitive endings conjugated verb
singular Je gagner -ai je gagnerai
Tu gagner -as tu gagneras
Il / elle gagner -a il / elle gagnera
plural Nous gagner -ons nous gagnerons
Vous gagner -ez vous gagnerez
Ils / elles gagner -ont ils / elles gagneront
2nd
group: nir
number/ person in nitive endings conjugated verb
singular Je nir -ai je nirai
Tu nir -as tu niras
Il / elle nir -a il / elle nira
plural Nous nir -ons nous nirons
Vous nir -ez vous
nirez
Ils / elles nir -ont ils / elles niront
3rd
group: perdre
number/ person in nitive endings conjugated verb
singular Je perdr -ai je perdrai
Tu perdr -as tu perdras
Il / elle perdr -a il / elle perdra
plural Nous perdr -ons nous perdrons
Vous perdr -ez vous perdrez
Ils / elles perdr -ont ils / elles perdront
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
234
Auxiliary verb avoir
number/ person radical endings conjugated verb
singular J’ aur -ai j’aurai
Tu aur -as tu auras
Il / elle aur -a il / elle aura
plural Nous aur -ons nous aurons
Vous aur -ez vous aurez
Ils / elles aur -ont ils / elles auront
Auxiliary verb être
number/ person radical endings conjugated verb
singular Je ser -ai je serai
Tu ser -as tu seras
Il / elle ser -a il / elle sera
plural Nous ser -ons nous serons
Vous ser -ez vous serez
Ils / elles ser -ont ils / elles seront
KEY POINT
The simple future describes an action which takes place after the moment that it is spoken
about:
Il viendra demain. He will come tomorrow.
9.10.2 Uses
The future tense:
describes a general truth, outside of time, and is frequently seen in maxims:
Le menteur sera toujours démasqué. The lier will always be revealed.
Rira bien qui rira le dernier. He who laughs last laughs [lit. will laugh]
loudest.
Qui vivra verra. What will be will be.
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
235
can be used to describe historical events. In a sequence of historical events the future
can describe a past event which comes after another event:
Childéric I
er
, chassé par son peuple, se refugia en
Thuringe où il connut Basine qu’il épousa. De
ce mariage naîtra Clovis en 466, premier roi
de France.
Childeric I, pursued by his own people, took
refuge in Thuringia where he met Basine,
whom he married. From this union was
born [lit. will be born], in 466, Clovis the
rst king of France.
expresses politeness. The future can replace the present to avoid brusqueness and so
soften the impact of the verb:
Maintenant je vous demanderai de vous taire
et d’ouvrir vos livres à la page 24.
Now I shall ask you to be quiet and to open
your books at page 24.
can be used as an imperative, to express a command, a prayer or a wish:
Tenez ! Vous rangerez ce livre dans la
bibliothèque !
Right! You will put that book back in the
library.
Vous voudrez bien me remplir ce document et
me le signer, s’il vous plaît !
You will ll in this document and sign it for
me, please!
can replace the present in some exclamative phrases which express indignation or
irony:
Comment ! Ces gens m’insulteront et je ne dirai
rien !
What! These people [lit. will] insult me and I
don’t [lit. won’t] say anything!
Quel être prétentieux ! Il connaîtra la philosophie
plus que moi !
What a pretentious person! He knows [lit.
will know] philosophy better than me!
can express a probability, in familiar language, giving a plausible explanation to an
action:
J’entends un bruit au grenier, ce sera un chat qui
se sera égaré.
I can hear a noise in the loft; it will be a stray
cat.
can be expressed by the verb devoir followed by an in nitive:
Je dois partir pour le Canada samedi. I’m to go to Canada on Saturday.
Notes
Sequence of tenses
When a subordinate clause introduced by si is in the present indicative, the verb in the
main clause is in the present, the future or the imperative:
Si tu apprends bien ton texte, tu pourras tenir le
rôle dans la pièce.
If you learn the part well you will be able to
play the role in the play.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
236
The immediate future
The immediate future is expressed by the verb aller in the present tense followed by the
in nitive:
J’ai soif ! Je vais me servir un jus de fruit. I’m thirsty. I’m going to get myself a fruit
juice.
On va prendre le train dans à peine deux heures. We’re going to catch the train in barely two
hours.
The future after conjunctions of time
In clauses introduced by a conjunction of time, like après que (after), aussitôt que / dès que
(as soon as), quand / lorsque (when), when the meaning is a future one, the verb is in the
future. Note the use of the present tense in English (see 13.3.3).
Example:
Dès qu’elle arrivera, donne-lui les billets. As soon as she arrives, give her the tickets.
9.11 The compound future
9.11.1 Formation
avoir or être in the simple future plus the past participle.
1st group: gagner
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ aurai gagné j’aurai gagné
Tu auras gagné tu auras gagné
Il / elle aura gagné il / elle aura gagné
plural Nous aurons gagné nous aurons gagné
Vous aurez gagné vous aurez gagné
Ils / elles auront gagné ils / elles auront gagné
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
237
2nd
group: nir
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ aurai n i j’aurai ni
Tu auras n i tu auras ni
Il / elle aura n i il / elle aura ni
plural Nous aurons n i nous aurons ni
Vous aurez n i vous aurez ni
Ils / elles auront n i ils / elles auront
ni
3rd
group: descendre
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular Je serai descendu(e) je serai descendu(e)
Tu seras descendu(e) tu seras descendu(e)
Il / elle sera descendu(e) il / elle sera descendu(e)
plural Nous serons descendu(e)(s) nous serons descendu(e)(s)
Vous serez descendu(e)(s) vous serez descendu(e)(s)
Ils / elles seront descendu(e)s ils / elles seront descendu(e)s
Auxiliary verb avoir
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ aurai eu j’aurai eu
Tu auras eu tu auras eu
Il / elle aura eu il / elle aura eu
plural Nous aurons eu nous aurons eu
Vous aurez eu vous aurez eu
Ils / elles auront eu ils / elles auront eu
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
238
Auxiliary verb être
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ aurai été j aurai été
Tu auras été tu auras été
Il / elle aura été il / elle aura été
plural Nous aurons été nous aurons été
Vous aurez été vous aurez été
Ils / elles auront été ils / elles auront été
KEY POINT
The compound future describes a completed future action which comes before another
future action or date:
Demain à 10 heures il aura pris connaissance
de ses résultats.
Tomorrow at 10 o’clock he will have got to
know his results.
Quand il aura passé tous ses examens, on
parlera des vacances.
When he has taken all his exams, we’ll talk
about holidays.
9.11.2 Uses
The compound future:
can express speculation or a supposition:
Elle aura pris froid en sortant de la piscine. She’ll have caught a cold getting out of the
swimming pool.
C’est sans doute ses parents qui auront été
trop sévères.
It’s certainly her parents who will have been
too strict.
can express a judgement or assessment of a past event:
Finalement, l’année 2008 aura surtout été
l’année de la crise.
In the end, 2008 will have been the year of
the crisis.
can be used to play down a past action, in a polite manner:
Ce n’est pas grave. Vous aurez oublié, c’est
tout !
It’s not serious. You’ll have forgotten, that’s
all.
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
239
Note
The compound future after conjunctions of time
The compound future is used in clauses introduced by a conjunction of time, like après
que (after), aussitôt que / dès que (as soon as), quand / lorsque (when). Note the use of the
perfect tense in English (see 13.3.3):
Quand il aura ni ses études il pourra en n
voyager.
When he has nished his studies, he will be
able to travel at last.
9.12 The conditional tense
The conditional tense (see 9.1 for the conditional as a mood in French), as its name
suggests, is mainly used to describe events which would only take place if speci c
conditions were met. In the sentence ‘If she went to Paris she would get a better job’, the
verb ‘would get’ is in the conditional tense. In this case the girl’s job prospects are
conditional on the move to Paris. The conditional is also used when expressing oneself
politely, as in ‘Would you like a drink?, and for expressing the future as seen from the
past, as in ‘He said he would leave’. In English we place the auxiliary verb ‘would’ or
‘should’ before the in nitive to form the conditional.
9.12.1 Formation
The conditional is formed from the in nitive of the verb plus the endings of the imperfect
indicative, except for irregular verbs. The formation of the conditional is therefore
similar to that of the future: Je couperais, il remplirait, vous tendriez …
1st group: gagner
number and person in nitive endings conjugated verb
singular Je gagner -ais je gagnerais
Tu gagner -ais tu gagnerais
Il / elle gagner -ait il / elle gagnerait
plural Nous gagner -ions nous gagnerions
Vous gagner -iez vous gagneriez
Ils / elles gagner -aient ils / elles gagneraient
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
240
2nd
group: nir
number and person in nitive endings conjugated verb
singular Je nir -ais je nirais
Tu nir -ais tu nirais
Il / elle nir -ait il / elle nirait
plural Nous nir -ions nous nirions
Vous nir -iez vous
niriez
Ils / elles nir -aient ils / elles niraient
3rd
group: perdre
number and person in nitive endings conjugated verb
singular Je perdr -ais je perdrais
Tu perdr -ais tu perdrais
Il / elle perdr -ait il / elle perdrait
plural Nous perdr -ions nous perdrions
Vous perdr -iez vous perdriez
Ils / elles perdr -aient ils / elles perdraient
Auxiliary verb avoir
number and person radical endings conjugated verb
singular J’ aur -ais j’aurais
Tu aur -ais tu aurais
Il / elle aur -ait il / elle aurait
plural Nous aur -ions nous aurions
Vous aur -iez vous auriez
Ils / elles aur -aient ils / elles auraient
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
241
Auxiliary verb être
number and person radical endings conjugated verb
singular Je ser -ais je serais
Tu ser -ais tu serais
Il / elle ser -ait il / elle serait
plural Nous ser -ions nous serions
Vous ser -iez vous seriez
Ils / elles ser -aient ils / elles seraient
KEY POINT
The conditional describes a future action from the perspective of the past:
Elle pensait sincèrement que ses poèmes la
rendraient célèbre.
She sincerely thought that her poems would
make her famous.
9.12.2 Uses
The conditional:
is used in indirect speech when the main verb is in the past; in direct speech the future
would be employed.
Direct speech Indirect speech
Il pensa : « Ce sera plus simple de prendre le
train. »
He thought: ‘It will be simpler to take the
train.’
Il pensait que ce serait plus simple de
prendre le train.
He thought that it would be simpler to take
the train.
has a future sense when related to a verb in a past tense, i.e., it is a ‘future in the past’:
Le professeur montrait les exercices que les
étudiants auraient à résoudre la semaine
suivante.
The teacher showed the exercises that the
students would have to work out the
following week.
expresses politeness, as in English:
Je voudrais vous parler un instant, auriez-vous
l’obligeance de m’attendre après la réunion.
I’d like to speak to you for a moment; would
you please wait for me after the meeting.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
242
expresses what would happen if a condition is met:
J’accepterais volontiers ce travail si j’étais
mieux payé.
I’d accept this work willingly if I was better
paid.
expresses an unsubstantiated statement (often in the media):
Les premières estimations montrent que
l’opposition perdrait 200 sièges à l’issue
de ce second tour.
The rst estimates indicate that the
opposition would lose 200 seats at the end
of the second round.
is used in sentences where the conjunction joining two statements is omitted. Both
clauses may be in the conditional:
Il présenterait ses excuses, je ne l’écouterais pas. He would give his apologies, I wouldn’t listen
to him.
In this sense it ressembles the following type of structure:
Même s’il présentait ses excuses, je ne
l’écouterais pas.
Even if he gave his excuses I wouldn’t listen
to him.
9.12.3 Sequence of tenses
When a conditional clause introduced by si is in the past, the conditional can be used in
the main clause:
S’il faisait beau j’irais à la plage. If it was ne I’d go to the beach.
9.13 The compound conditional
9.13.1 Formation
The auxiliary avoir or être in the conditional + the past participle.
1st
group: gagner
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ aurais gagné j’aurais gagné
Tu aurais gagné tu aurais gagné
Il / elle aurait gagné il / elle aurait gagné
plural Nous aurions gagné nous aurions gagné
Vous auriez gagné vous auriez gagné
Ils / elles auraient gagné ils / elles auraient gagné
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
243
2nd
group: nir
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ aurais n i j’aurais ni
Tu aurais n i tu aurais ni
Il / elle aurait n i il / elle aurait ni
plural Nous aurions n i nous aurions ni
Vous auriez n i vous auriez ni
Ils / elles auraient n i ils / elles auraient
ni
3rd
group: descendre
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular Je serais descendu(e) je serais descendu(e)
Tu serais descendu(e) tu serais descendu(e)
Il / elle serait descendu(e) il / elle serait descendu(e)
plural Nous serions descendu(e)(s) nous serions descendu(e)(s)
Vous seriez descendu(e)(s) vous seriez descendu(e)(s)
Ils / elles seraient descendu(e)s
ils / elles seraient descendu(e)s
Auxiliary verb avoir
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ aurais eu j’aurais eu
Tu aurais eu tu aurais eu
Il / elle aurait eu il / elle aurait eu
plural Nous aurions eu nous aurions eu
Vous auriez eu vous auriez eu
Ils / elles auraient eu ils / elles auraient eu
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
244
Auxiliary verb être
number and person auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
singular J’ aurais été j’aurais été
Tu aurais été tu aurais été
Il / elle aurait été il / elle aurait été
plural Nous aurions été nous aurions été
Vous auriez été vous auriez été
Ils / elles auraient été ils / elles auraient été
KEY POINT
The compound conditional expresses a hypothetical situation, referring to an event which
would have taken place:
J’aurais pu marcher avec eux mais je m’étais
blessé le genou la veille.
I would have been able to walk with them
but I had injured my knee the day before.
9.13.2 Use of the compound conditional
The compound conditional:
describes past events which could not be ful lled, unlike the conditional:
regret or remorse : J’aurais aimé être plus grand. I would have loved to be taller.
a reproach : Tu aurais dû y penser plus tôt ! You should have thought about it sooner!
a condition: Si j’avais sauvegardé régulièrement mes documents je n’aurais pas perdu deux
mois de recherche. If I had saved my documents regularly I wouldn’t have lost two
months of research.
a hypothesis: Si j’avais étudié correctement les mathématiques j’aurais pu travailler à la City.
If I had studied maths properly I’d have been able to work in the City.
expresses possibility or uncertainty:
in an unsubstantiated statement (often in the media) about a past fact: Les bombes
auraient causé la mort de plus de 100 personnes. The bombs would have caused the
deaths of 100 people.
is used in indirect speech, when the main verb is in the past. In this case, in direct
speech the compound future would be used.
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
245
Direct speech Indirect speech
Il pensa : « j’aurai ni mon rapport avant la
nuit. »
He thought: ‘I’ll have nished my report
before nightfall.’
Il pensait qu’il aurait ni son rapport avant la
nuit.
He thought that he would have nished his
report before nightfall.
Notes
The compound conditional in conditional clauses
In these clauses, the compound conditional combines with the pluperfect and describes a
condition that has not been ful lled:
Si j’avais su j’aurais suivi un cours d’informatique. If I’d known I would have followed a course
on computing.
Si tu étais venu à l’heure tu aurais eu une place
assise.
If you’d come on time you would have had a
seat.
A second form of the compound conditional also exists but is rarely used (mostly in
written French). It is used in practically the same way as the compound conditional
described above. It is formed from the auxiliary avoir or être in the imperfect
subjunctive plus the past participle: j’eusse gagné, ni, descendu, etc.
9.14 Summary of the sequence of tenses in
conditional clauses
subordinate
clause
main clause meaning example
1 Si + present simple future certainty S’il fait beau, j’irai me promener.
I f the weather’s good I’ll go for a
walk.
2 Si + imperfect conditional present action
impossible
future action
possible
S’il faisait beau, j’irais me promener.
If the weather were good I’d go
for a walk.
3 Si + pluperfect compound
conditional
past action
impossible
S’il avait fait beau hier, je serais allé
me promener.
If the weather had been good
yesterday, I’d have gone for a
walk.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
246
Indicative tenses in context
“Ils sont apparus, comme dans un rêve, au sommet de la dune, à demi cachés par
la brume de sable que leurs pieds soulevaient. Lentement, ils sont descendus dans la
vallée, en suivant la piste presque invisible.”
Cet extrait est tiré de Désert, de J.M.G Le Clézio, un livre qui combine deux histoires
tragiques de l’Afrique du Nord. Le livre a obtenu le prix Renaudot en 1980. Mais
dès son premier roman Le Clézio frappait fort puisqu’il obtenait déjà le prix
Renaudot pour Le Procès verbal. Il était passé très près du prix Goncourt. Il n’avait
alors que 23 ans. En effet, Le Clézio naquit en avril 1940, à Nice, d’un père
britannique et d’une mère bretonne. En 2008 il obtiendra le prix Nobel de
littérature.
Mais qu’aurait été la littérature française si ce livre remarquable que fut Désert
n’avait vu le jour ? Que serait le monde littéraire francophone aujourd’hui si Le
Clézio n’avait fait tache d’huile sur nombre de jeunes auteurs ? Car il s’agit bien
là d’un livre universel qui a voulu faire la part belle aux cultures du monde. Un
livre singulier qui marie classicisme et modernisme. Le Clézio s’était déjà écarté
du formalisme du roman avec Le Procès verbal, mais avec Désert nous entrons
dans la littérature des contrastes et de la tension créatrice. Désert est à la fois
roman merveilleux et roman noir, à la fois poème et tragédie.
sont apparus, sont descendus compound past of verbs conjugated with être [9.5.2]
soulevaient, frappait, obtenait,
avait
imperfect tense [9.4.1]
combine, s’agit de, marie,
entrons, est
present tense [9.3]
a obtenu, a voulu compound past of verbs conjugated with avoir [9.5.1]
était passé pluperfect of verb conjugated with être [9.8.1]
naquit, fut simple past tense of naître and être [9.6]
obtiendra irregular future tense of obtenir [9.10]
aurait été compound conditional tense of être [9.13.1]
avait vu, avait fait pluperfect tense of voir and faire, with irregular past
participles [9.8.1]
serait irregular conditional of être [9.12]
s’était écarté pluperfect tense of pronominal verb, conjugated with être
[9.8]
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
VERBS 2: TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
247
Exercises
1 Fill the blanks using the tense in brackets:
1. Hier (je – prendre) le train pour le sud (compound past).
2. (Je – retourner) la semaine suivante (compound past).
3. Dans un mois (nous – reprendre) les cours (compound future).
4. Mais avant (je – repartir) bien une semaine (compound
conditional, rst form).
5. Hélas, pour cela (il – falloir) de l’argent (present).
6. (je – pouvoir) en demander à mes parents (conditional).
7. (je – demander) leur / déjà / beaucoup (compound past).
8. (il – être) un temps (simple past) où (je – demander)
sans vergogne (imperfect).
9. Maintenant (je – préférer) me débrouiller seul (conditional).
10. (on – voir) (future) ! D’ici là (je – trouver) une solution
(compound future).
2 Put the verbs in brackets in the appropriate tense, either the imperfect or
the compound past:
1. Ce café (être) trop mauvais, je ne le (boire) pas bu.
2. On (rire) bien hier, mais il (ne pas faire) beau de toute la journée.
3. En quelle année vous (se marier) ?
4. Vous (arriver) pendant que je (dormir).
5. Je (ne pas entendre) le téléphone, je (dormir) toute la matinée.
6. Nous (aller) la voir 3 fois mais elle (n’être jamais) là.
7. Je (vouloir) bavarder avec lui mais il (partir) trop vite.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
248
8. Où vous (aller) hier pendant que je (écrire) mes lettres ?
9. Hier il (emprunter) la voiture de ses parents car ses amis l’(attendre) depuis une
heure.
10. Je (aimer) bien lire le journal les matins au petit déjeuner quand je (être) en stage.
3 Put the verbs in brackets in the appropriate tense, either the imperfect
or the past simple:
1. Je (dormir) quand soudain le téléphone (sonner) .
2. Ils (arriver) au moment où je (me laver) les mains pour
passer à table.
3. Nous (avoir) l’habitude de lui rendre visite souvent.
4. En entendant le bruit, le chat (prendre) la fuite.
5. Dès que je (sortir) sur le balcon, l’oiseau (s’envoler) dans
un éclair.
6. Tous les matins en sortant je (faire) attention à bien fermer la porte.
7. En un instant les nuages (s’accumuler) et il (se mettre) à
pleuvoir. Nous (devoir) courir nous abriter.
8. Ils (rentrer) chaque jour en autobus.
9. Grand-père (s’arrêter) toutes les demi-heures pour reprendre son
souf e.
10. Il (se coucher) tard tous les soirs, mais il (comprendre)
très vite qu’à ce rythme son travail en patirait.
4 Put the verbs in brackets into the appropriate form of the conditional or
compound conditional:
1. Si j’avais su je (rester) plus longtemps.
2. Si j’étais resté plus longtemps, je (rater) mon train.
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249
3. S’il prenait le train, il (arriver) plus vite.
4. S’il avait fait attention il (ne pas tomber) de vélo.
5. Si tu m’avais averti, je (éviter) tous ces ennuis.
6. Si je taillais ces arbres je (avoir) plus de fruits.
7. Si je n’avais pas eu mal au bras je (monter) la valise moi-même.
8. Que tu (faire) si je n’étais pas là ?
9. Que tu (s’acheter ) si tu étais riche ?
10. On (ne que pouvoir) gagner que si on s’entrainait.
5 Put the verbs in the appropriate form of the pluperfect:
1. Elle (passer) plusieurs fois par ici.
2. Elles (descendre) du train un peu précipitemment.
3. Elles (courir) sur le quai.
4. Elles (ne pas voir) le banc.
5. Ils (passer) leurs examens avant l’été.
6. Ils (venir) tard et (décider) de partir tôt.
7. Que (devenir) ils ?
8. Elles bien (faire) le voyage à Paris mais elles (ne demeurer que) quelques jours.
9. Elles (demeurer) rue Victor Hugo.
10. Vous (descendre) tous les cartons ?
250
VERBS 3 : THE IMPERATIVE, 10
THE INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLES
10.1 The imperative
The imperative mood of the verb is used to express commands, warnings, advice,
requests, etc. ‘Come on!’, ‘Don’t be foolish!’, ‘Light the touch paper and stand back’,
‘Let’s see’ are all examples of imperatives.
KEY POINTS
In French the imperative is used in a similar way as in English, but the verb forms which
express the imperative are more complex.
Object pronouns are placed after the verb in af rmative imperatives, but before the verb
in negative imperatives:
Donne-lui les bonbons ! Give him the sweets!
Ne lui donne pas les bonbons ! Don’t give him the sweets!
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251
10.1.1 Formation
There are two forms of the imperative, present and past.
The imperative is conjugated in three persons:
the second person singular: Regarde ! Look! (informal)
the rst person plural: Regardons ! Let’s look!
the second person plural: Regardez ! Look! (formal singular or plural)
There is no subject pronoun before the verb.
The present imperative
The present imperative is formed from the radical of the present indicative, adding the
following endings:
the second person singular: -e or -s
the rst person plural: -ons
the second person plural: -ez
Person
-er verbs
parler (to
speak)
-ir verbs
nir (to
nish)
-re verbs
descendre
(to go
down)
Auxiliary
verb avoir
Auxiliary
verb être
2nd sing.
Parle ! Finis ! Descends ! Aie ! Sois !
1st pl.
Parlons ! Finissons ! Descendons !Ayons ! Soyons !
2nd pl.
Parlez ! Finissez ! Descendez !Ayez ! Soyez !
Notes
The -er group of verbs, aller, avoir and all verbs ending in a silent syllable (/ə/) in the
second person singular of the present indicative (verbs like cueillir [to pick], offrir [to
offer] and savoir [to know]) do not add s in the imperative singular: Cherche !
(Look!), Aie ! (Have!), Va ! (Go!), Sache ! (Know!), Offre ! (Offer!), Cueille ! (Pick!).
When, however, these verbs are followed by the pronouns y or en they add s, and
are linked to the pronoun by a hyphen.
Parles-en à ton père ! Talk to your father about it!
Vas-y ! Go on!
Cueilles-en plusieurs ! Pick several (of them)!
Accompagnes-y tes enfants ! Go there with your children!
Verbs like s’en aller (to go away) become Va-t’en ! (Go away!), Ne t’en va pas ! (Don’t
go away!) in the informal imperative (see irregular verbs below).
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
252
Position and order of pronouns with the imperative
In the af rmative:
pronouns follow the verb and are linked to it by a hyphen;
the direct object pronouns me, m’, te, t’, become the stressed pronouns moi, toi, except
when moi and toi are followed by en or y; when this happens they revert to m’ and
t’ : m’en, t’en; m’y, t’y.
J’ai trouvé des macarons. I’ve found some macaroons.
Ah ! Donne-m’en quelques-uns. Ah! Give me some.
Mets-t’y, mais fais attention. Go [lit. place yourself] there, but pay
attention.
In the negative, object pronouns are placed before the verb, between ne and the verb,
without a hyphen.
In pronominal verbs, te, t’, nous, vous follow the same rules.
Af rmative imperative Negative imperative
Puis-je nir les frites ?
May I nish the chips?
Finissez-les !
Finish them!
Ne les nissez pas !
Don’t nish them!
Devrai-je être à la gare aussi ?
Will I have to be at the
station too?
Allez-y !
Go there!
N’y allez pas !
Don’t go there!
Dois-je faire de la publicité sur
cette affaire ?
Must I tell everybody about
that business?
Parlez-en partout !
Spread it everywhere!
N’en parlez à personne.
Don’t speak about it to
anyone.
Dois-je t’attendre ?
Must I wait for you?
Attends-moi !
Wait for me!
Ne m’attends pas !
Don’t wait for me!
Dois-je me lever
?
Do I have to get up?
Lève-toi !
Get up!
Ne te lève pas.
Don’t get up.
When the af rmative imperative is followed by two pronouns, the direct object is
placed before the other pronoun. The pronouns are linked to the verb by hyphens.
In the negative, object pronouns are placed before the verb, in the same order but
without a hyphen.
If the object is en, it will always be in second position.
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253
Af rmative imperative Negative imperative
Dois-je lire l’histoire aux
enfants ?
Must I read the story to the
children?
Lisez-la-leur !
Read it to them!
Ne la leur lisez pas !
Don’t read it to them!
Dois-je lire des histoires à cet
enfant.
Must I read stories to that
child?
Lisez-lui-en !
Read some to him!
Ne lui en lisez pas !
Don’t read any to him!
Dois-je m’en aller ?
Must I go away?
Allez-vous-en !
Go away!
Ne vous en allez pas !
Don’t go away!
The past imperative
Formation
Avoir or être in the present imperative plus the past participle of the verb:
Person
–er verbs
parler
–ir verbs
nir
–re verbs
descendre
avoir être
2nd. sing
aie parlé ! aie ni sois descendu(e) ! aie eu aie été
1st pl.
ayons parlé ! ayons ni soyons descendu(e)(s) ! ayons eu ayons été
2nd pl.
ayez parlé ! ayez ni soyez descendu(e)(s) ! ayez eu ayez été
Note
Pronominal verbs have no past imperative.
The past imperative is little used. It functions in the same way as the present imperative,
but it expresses the prior nature of the action in relation to a date, fact or another future
action:
Aie ni ton devoir avant d’aller au lit ! Have your homework nished before going
to bed!
Soyez revenus avant 8 heures! Be back before 8 o’clock!
Some imperatives of irregular verbs:
2nd person singular 1st person plural 2nd person plural
aller (to go) va ! allons ! allez !
faire (to do, make) fais ! faisons ! faites !
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
254
2nd person singular 1st person plural 2nd person plural
savoir (to know) sache ! sachons ! sachez !
venir (to come) viens ! venons ! venez !
vouloir (to wish) veuille ! n/a veuillez !
Verbs of the s’en aller type
s’en aller (to go
away)
va-t’en ! allons-nous-en ! allez-vous-en !
s’en faire (to worry) fais-t’en ! faisons-nous-en ! faites-vous-en !
s’en remettre (à
quelqu’un/quelque
chose)
(to leave it to
someone/thing)
remets-t’en ! remettons-nous-en ! remettez-vous-en !
s’en sortir (to cope) sors-t’en ! sortons-nous-en ! sortez-vous-en !
(See also Verb Tables on pp. 393–417.)
10.1.2 Uses
The imperative is used to express:
an order
Sortez immédiatement de là ! Come out of there at once!
Veuillez montrer vos passeports, s’il vous plaît ! Show your passports,
please!
a prohibition
Ne piétinez pas les plates-bandes ! Don’t walk on the ower-beds!
a piece of advice
N’oublie pas ton écharpe, il risque de faire froid. Don’t forget your scarf; it might get cold.
a prayer
Laissez-moi, je vous prie, un peu plus de temps ! Let me have a little more time, I beg you!
instructions
Sortez la carte SIM de votre ancien portable et
insérez-la dans le nouvel appareil. Appuyez
ensuite sur la touche dièse en bas, à droite.
Take out the SIM card from your old mobile
and insert it into the new one. Then press
the hash key, bottom right.
a suggestion disguised as an order
Change de compagnie de téléphone, mon cher,
cela te coûtera moins cher.
Change your phone company, dear; it will be
cheaper for you.
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255
a polite formula
Veuillez agréer, Monsieur/Madame, l’expression
de mes sentiments les meilleurs …
Yours sincerely
a condition in statements like:
Travaille et tu seras récompensé. lit. Work and you will be rewarded.
Aide-toi et le ciel t’aidera. God helps those who help themselves.
Note
A few verbs, such as devoir and pouvoir, do not have an imperative.
10.2 The in nitive
The in nitive is the form of the verb which is not in ected, and the one always given in
the dictionary. In English the in nitive consists of two words, the rst of which is always
‘to’ and the second of which is the verb, e.g. ‘to smile’, ‘to remain’.
KEY POINTS
In French the in nitive form of the verb:
consists of one word
ends in either -er, -(o)ir or -re:
chanter (to sing), nir (to nish), vivre (to live)
is invariable
is impersonal
can also function as a noun
10.2.1 The in nitiv e and the past in nitive
The in nitive can express both present and past time:
Cela fait 2 heures qu’il cherche à te joindre. He’s been trying to get hold of you for two
hours.
The past in nitive expresses a completed action:
Après avoir marché toute la nuit, il aspirait à
un repos bien mérité.
Having walked the whole night, he was
looking forward to a well-earned rest.
Unlike verb tenses, the in nitive:
has no in exions;
does not have a subject except in particular circumstances.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
256
10.2.2 Forms
The in nitive
There are three groups. Note that group 3 verbs have three possible endings.
group ending examples
1
About 90%
of all verbs
-er
except aller (to go)
arriver (to arrive)
2 -ir (with -issant as the ending of the
present participle) + maudire (to
curse)
rajeunir (to make young)
vieillir (to grow old)
dé nir (to de ne)
3 -re, -oir, -ir (with -ant as the ending of
the present participle)
devenir (to become)
prévoir (to foresee)
asseoir (to sit)
conduire (to drive)
faire (to do, make)
éteindre (to switch off)
inclure (to include)
dissoudre (to dissolve)
The past in nitive
Formation
The in nitive of avoir or être plus the past participle. The past participle follows the rules
for the agreement of the past participle (see 10.6.4):
Pour l’avoir lavée très souvent sa voiture est
comme neuve.
His car is like new because he’s washed it so
often.
group auxiliary past participle conjugated verb
-er avoir gagné avoir gagné
-ir (-iss-) avoir ni avoir ni
-re être descendu être descendu
avoir avoir eu avoir eu
être avoir été avoir été
The past in nitive, which expresses a completed action, can indicate a prior temporal
relationship with any past period. It is often associated with the preposition après :
Après avoir cherché partout, il a en n trouvé ses
clés.
After having looked everywhere, he
nally
found his keys.
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257
The compound past in nitive
If the idea of completion is to be insisted on, the verb can be put in the compound past
in nitive. The auxiliary of the past in nitive is then itself put into the past, giving a
double auxiliary:
Après avoir eu marché longtemps il atteignait
en n la ville.
After having walked for a long time he nally
reached the village. [lit. After having had
walked …]
10.2.3 Uses of the in nitive
In instructions, explanatory notices and recipes it can replace the imperative:
Voir page 26. Agiter le acon avant de s’en servir. See page 26. Shake the bottle before use.
Couper les avocats en dés, ajouter quelques
gouttes de citron et servir avec quelques
feuilles de salade.
Dice the avocados, add a few drops of lemon
juice and serve with a few salad leaves.
For ‘polite commands’ it replaces the imperative:
Ne pas fumer, s’il vous plaît. Please do not smoke.
Ne pas se garer devant le portail ! Do not park in front of the gate.
After modal verbs such as vouloir (to wish), pouvoir (to be able), devoir (to have to), savoir
(to know):
J’ai su jouer au poker très jeune. I knew how to play poker when I was very
young.
Je voudrais pouvoir être un génie des
mathématiques plus tard.
I would like to be able to be a mathematical
genius when I grow up.
After verbs such as aimer (to like), adorer (to love):
Elles adorent faire du sport. They love playing sport.
After prepositions, except en :
À vendre. For sale.
Ils s’efforcent de faire le bien. They try hard to do good.
The in nitive of narration, or historical in nitive, is used to make a narrative more
vivid and more rapid. It is always used in the present and almost always linked to a
past event. The structure employed is: et + subject + the in nitive:
Le politicien prit le micro. Et les partisans
d’applaudir et l’opposition de narguer.
The politician took the microphone. The
supporters applauded and the opposition
taunted him.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
258
The exclamative in nitive expresses a keenly felt sentiment, a surprise, a reaction:
Moi, traverser ce courant à la nage ! Me, swim across against that current!
(subjunctive equivalent: que je traverse ce
courant !)
Me dire
ça après ce que j’ai fait pour toi ! To say that to me after all I’ve done for you!
(present indicative meaning: You tell me
that …)
In questions which do not have a subject the in nitive expresses uncertainty or a
‘false’ question:
Que penser de tout cela ? What should we think about all that?
Que lui conseiller ? What shall I advise him/her?
À quoi bon insister ? What’s the point of insisting?
In complex sentences, the in nitive is generally compulsory when the subject of the
main clause and that of the in nitive are the same:
Elle cherche à se rapprocher du centre ville. She is trying to move nearer to the town
centre.
Dites-lui de fermer les portes et les fenêtres. Tell him/her to shut the doors and windows.
With verbs that have two objects such as dire (to say), demander (to ask), offrir (to
offer), souhaiter (to wish), followed by quelque chose à quelqu’un (something to
somebody). The object of these verbs can be the subject of the in nitive verb in the
subordinate clause. (This also occurs in English: in I told him to come early, ‘him’ is
the subject of the in nitive ‘to come’ and the object of ‘told’.)
J’ai dit aux membres du comité d’arriver plus tôt. I told the members of the committee to
arrive earlier.
In indirect questions:
Je lui ai dit où trouver la nappe. I told him where to nd the tablecloth.
In subordinate clauses with main clauses containing:
verbs of perception: voir (to see), regarder (to look at), entendre (to hear), écouter (to listen
to), sentir (to feel), etc., the order of the in nitive and its subject is interchangeable:
Ils regardent impuissants monter les eaux / les
eaux monter.
Powerless, they watched the waters rising.
J’entends un chat miauler / miauler un chat. I hear a cat meowing.
causative verbs of movement such as emmener (to take), envoyer (to send), conduire
(to drive):
Elle envoya son ls faire les courses. She sent her son to do the shopping.
after faire and laisser:
Elle a fait construire une belle maison. She’s had a beautiful house built.
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259
In relative clauses introduced by où :
Il a oublié l’endroit où prendre le bus. He’s forgotten where to catch the bus.
10.2.4 The in nitive as a noun
Some in nitives exist independently as masculine nouns and are accompanied by a
determiner.
in nitive as a
verb
in nitive as a
noun
example
devenir = to
become
le devenir = future Le devenir de l’Union européenne dépendra de sa
capacité à résoudre la crise. The future of the
European Union will depend on its capacity to
resolve the crisis.
devoir = to have
to
le devoir = duty /
homework
Il n’a fait que son devoir. He only did his duty.
Le professeur de français nous donne beaucoup de
devoirs. The French teacher gives us a lot of
homework.
manger et boire =
to eat and drink
le boire et le
manger = food
and drink
Ce qui préoccupe l’être vivant c’est bien le boire et le
manger. Food and drink is indeed what concerns
living beings.
pouvoir = to be
able to
le pouvoir =
power
Pleins pouvoirs et démocratie sont incompatibles.
Total power and democracy are incompatible.
rire = to laugh le rire = laughter Le rire est le propre de l’homme. Laughter is peculiar
to mankind.
savoir = to know le savoir =
knowledge
Les hommes se transmettent leur savoir de génération
en génération.
Mankind transmits its knowledge from generation
to generation.
10.2.5 Functions of the in nitive as a noun
In nitives can have all the functions of a noun. Note that the English equivalent is
frequently the present participle (see 10.4.1):
Subject:
Escalader des parois abruptes est une activité
grisante.
Scaling steep rock faces is an exhilarating
activity.
Direct object:
Elles aiment voyager. They like travelling.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
260
Indirect object:
Je rêve de faire le tour du monde. I dream of travelling around the world.
Second object:
Il les a laissés se débrouiller seuls. He let them get along by themselves.
Noun complement:
Elle a eu le courage de résister. She had the courage to resist.
Adjective complement:
Tu n’es pas gentil de la traiter de la sorte. It’s not nice of you to treat her in that way.
Pronoun complement:
Son seul défaut c’est celui de manquer
d’humour.
Her only fault is that she lacks a sense of
humour.
Adverbial complement
of purpose:
Elle a baissé le thermostat pour faire des
économies.
She’s lowered the thermostat to save money.
of cause:
Il a perdu 3 points sur son permis de conduire
pour avoir refusé une priorité.
He’s lost 3 points on his driving licence for
having ignored a right of way.
of manner:
Elle passa devant sans même regarder. She went past without even looking.
of time:
Avant d’arriver, il savait déjà ce qui l’attendait. Before arriving he already knew what to
expect.
Apposition to a noun:
Je ne souhaite qu’une chose, trouver un grand
appartement.
I wish for only one thing, to nd a big
apartment.
10.2.6 Verbs followed by a preposition plus an in nitive
Numerous verbs can be followed by a preposition:
penser à l’été to think of summer
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261
There are often no logical rules for these structures and so it is necessary to learn which
preposition goes with which verb. For example:
venir de (faire quelque chose) to have just (done something)
s’occuper de to take care of
avoir besoin de to need
Most French prepositions are followed by a verb in the in nitive:
sans rire ! seriously!
pour se changer to change (clothes)
a n de comprendre so as to understand
Some prepositions cannot be followed by verbs, e.g. avec, sur (see 10.5).
en may be followed by a verb ending in -ant, e.g. en marchant (while walking):
en venant while coming
après may be followed by the past in nitive:
après avoir fait les calculs after making the calculations
après être allé à la mairie after going to the town hall
après s’être baigné after bathing
Some verbs are followed directly by the in nitive:
Verbs expressing desire, wishes, will, necessity
vouloir marcher to want to walk
devoir travailler to have to work
Il faut chercher … It is necessary to look for …
Verbs of feeling and opinion
aimer danser to love to dance
préférer nager to prefer to swim
Verbs of movement
sortir chercher le pain to go and fetch the bread
courir prendre le bus to run to catch the bus
Verbs of perception
entendre frapper to hear (something) strike
voir arriver to see (someone / thing) arrive
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
262
In French, as in English, many verbs are followed by a preposition + in nitive. The
prepositions used after particular verbs are, however, not the same in one language as in
another:
Elle a choisi de passer ses vacances à la
montagne.
She chose to spend her holidays in the
mountains.
Il a en n réussi à réparer son vélo. He nally succeeded in repairing his bike.
Verbs followed by à and de + in nitive
The most common prepositions after French verbs are à and de. Listed below is a
selection of commonly used verbs which require a preposition.
Note
In many cases the English equivalent of the French in nitive in these constructions ends
in -ing.
Verbs followed by à + in nitive
arriver à to manage, to succeed in
avoir à to have to, must
avoir du mal à to nd it hard to
avoir tendance à to tend to
chercher à to seek to, to attempt to
commencer à to begin to (+ -ing)
consister à to consist of (+ -ing)
continuer à (or de) to continue to (do/-ing)
décider (quelqu’un) à to convince (someone) to
être décidé à to be determined to
hésiter à to hesitate to
mettre (du temps) à to take time to
obliger à (or de) to oblige to
passer (du temps) à to spend (time) (+ -ing)
penser à to think about (+ -ing)
renoncer à to give up (+ -ing)
réussir à to succeed in (+ -ing)
s’attendre à to expect
se décider à to make up one’s mind to
s’habituer à to get used to (+ -ing)
s’intéresser à to be interested in (+ -ing)
se mettre à to start (+ -ing)
tarder à to take a long time to
tenir à to care about (+ -ing)
Ce travail consiste à classer des dossiers. This job consists of ling documents.
Elle a appris à conduire. She has learned to drive.
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263
Il continue à (or de) chercher encore un peu. He’s continuing to search for a little longer.
Elles se préparent à sortir. They are getting ready to go out.
Verbs followed by de + in nitive
accepter de to accept, agree to
s’agir de it’s a question of (+ -ing)
arrêter de to nish (+ -ing)
avoir besoin de to need
avoir envie de to feel like (+ -ing)
avoir l’intention de to intend (+ -ing)
avoir peur de to be afraid (of + -ing)
avoir le temps de to have the time to
choisir de to choose to
se contenter de to be happy (+ -ing)
continuer de (or à) to continue to (+ -ing)
décider de to decide to
défendre de to forbid to
dire (à quelqu’un) de to tell (someone) to do
empêcher (quelque chose or quelqu’un) de to stop (someone or something) from
(+ -ing)
essayer de to try to
être désolé de to be sorry (for + -ing)
être obligé de to be obliged to
s’excuser de to apologize for (+ -ing)
faire bien de to be right to do
nir de to nish (+ -ing)
interdire de to forbid to
s’occuper de (quelqu’un) to look after (someone)
oublier de to forget to
permettre à (quelqu’un) de to permit (someone) to
prier (quelqu’un) de to beg (someone) to
rappeler à quelqu’un de to remind someone to
refuser de to refuse to
regretter de to be sorry for (+ -ing)
remercier quelqu’un de to thank someone for (+ -ing)
se souvenir de to remember
venir de to have just
Il s’agit de bien comprendre la situation. It is a question of understanding the situation
properly.
Je te souhaite de passer de bonnes vacances. I hope you have a good holiday.
Ils ont ni de semer. They’ve nished sowing.
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Elle se souvient d’avoir visité Venise quand elle
était enfant.
She remembers having visited Venice when
she was a child.
Il a essayé de changer le ltre à air. He tried to change the air lter.
Je vous
remercie de vous occuper aussi bien de
mes enfants.
Thank you for looking after my children so
well.
Mon père ne m’a pas permis de voyager seul. My father has not allowed me to travel
alone.
Note
Some verbs can be followed by à and de without any change of meaning; others change
their meaning.
Without a change of meaning:
Il continue à travailler / il continue de
travailler.
He continues to work / working.
With a change of meaning:
Je tiens à cette bague, elle me vient de ma
grand-mère.
That ring means a lot to me; it was my
grandmother’s.
Elle tient de sa mère. She takes after her mother.
Other prepositions
Prepositions other than à or de are used to a lesser extent:
Il a ni par comprendre. He has nally understood. [lit.
nished by
understanding]
Il a commencé par faire ce qu’on lui avait dit. He began by doing what he had been told.
Il passe pour être le meilleur de sa catégorie. He is considered [lit. passes for] the best in
his group.
Alternation of à and de
Certain verbs have a different structure according to whether they have a direct object or
not and according to whether the subject of the in nitive is the same as that of the main
clause.
Same subject: Il a demandé à rester un peu
plus.
He asked to stay a little longer. (permission)
Different subject: Il lui a demandé de rester
un peu plus.
He asked him to stay a little longer. (order)
Il m’a obligé à partir. He obliged me to leave.
Je suis obligé de partir. I am obliged to leave.
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265
Il s’est décidé à changer de travail. He decided (i.e., he took it on himself) to
change his job.
Il a décidé de changer de travail. He decided to change his job.
With neutral or impersonal verbs, il est or c’est + adjective + in nitive (see 3.1.5), the
preposition can be either à or de:
When the subject is neutral, i.e., it refers to something previously mentioned, and
the in nitive has a passive meaning, à is used:
Un problème comme celui-là, c’est toujours
dif cile à resoudre.
A problem like that is always dif cult to
resolve.
When the subject is impersonal, i.e., not related to anything previously mentioned
or understood, de is used:
Il est essentiel de connaître sa version des faits. It is essential to know her version of the
facts.
Il est honteux de mentir. It is shameful to lie.
Similarly, the following neutral or impersonal expressions are followed by either à or de:
Il est dif cile / C’est dif cile (à / de …) It’s dif cult (to …)
Il est facile / C’est facile (à /de …) It’s easy (to …)
Il est impossible / C’est impossible (à / de …) It’s impossible (to …)
Il est possible / C’est possible (à / de …) It’s possible (to …)
10.3 Participles
KEY POINTS
The participle is a verb which takes the form of an adjective.
It functions as a verb, followed by the direct and indirect objects and by adverbial
phrases,
and
as a verbal adjective, having all the characteristics of an adjective, including agreement
in number and gender.
There are three forms:
present participle chantant singing
past participle chanté sang
compound past participle ayant chanté having sung
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
266
Present participle:
Verb plus direct object: Je l’ai vu cherchant partout
ses lunettes.
I saw him looking everywhere for
his glasses.
Adjective: des histoires amusantes amusing stories
Past participle:
Adjective: une langue parlée a spoken language
Verb: Je lui ai parlé déjà. I’ve already spoken to her.
10.4 The present participle
The form of the verb ending in -ing in English (talking, drinking, etc.) is called the
present participle. This form of the verb is frequently used and very versatile: it can act as
part of a verb, ‘you’re dreaming’, as an adjective, ‘a sinking ship’ or as a noun,
‘swimming is good exercise’.
In French the part of the verb ending in -ant is the equivalent of the present participle.
There are some similarities between English and French in the use of the present
participle, but important differences also exist.
10.4.1 Formation
Replace the ending -ons or -ez of the present indicative by the ending -ant of the present
participle:
in nitive 1st person plural
present indicative
ending of the
present participle
present participle
parler (to speak) nous parlons -ant parlant
réagir (to react) nous réagissons -ant réagissant
voir (to see) nous voyons -ant voyant
dire (to say) nous dis
ons -ant disant
The auxiliary verbs être
, avoir
and savoir have an irregular present participle:
in nitive 1st person plural
present indicative
ending of the
present participle
present participle
être (to be) nous sommes -ant étant
avoir (to have) nous avons -ant ayant
savoir (to know) nous savons -ant sachant
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267
Notes
The present participle is invariable:
Je l’ai vue sortant du bateau / Je les ai vues
sortant du bateau.
I saw her coming off the boat / I saw them
coming off the boat.
But in legal language, which has kept some archaic expressions, the present participle is
variable: les ayants droit (legal claimants), toute(s) affaire(s) cessante(s) (forthwith).
The English -ing form of the verb (‘seeing’, ‘believing’, etc.) often corresponds to an
in nitive rather than a present participle:
Avant d’envoyer la lettre n’oublie pas de
l’affranchir.
Before sending the letter don’t forget to stick
a stamp on it.
10.4.2 Meaning and uses
As a verb, the present participle expresses an action which is simultaneous to that of
the main verb.
When placed at the beginning of a sentence, the present participle is only possible if
it is related to the subject of the main verb:
Prenant son courage à deux mains, il alla parler
au directeur.
Taking his courage in both hands, he went to
speak to the director. (the same person
plucks up courage)
But you cannot say *Prenant son courage à deux mains, je le vis aller parler au directeur. *Taking
his courage in both hands, I saw him go to speak to the director.
The present participle always has an active meaning as a verb; it expresses the
present, past or future, depending on the tense of the main verb:
Present : Il arrive tenant son journal à la main. He arrives holding his newspaper in his hand.
Past: Je le vis tenant son journal (qui tenait son journal). I saw him holding his newspaper (i.e.,
I saw him who was holding …)
Future: Je le verrai encore demain tenant son journal à la main. I’ll see him tomorrow holding
his newspaper in his hand.
It expresses a continuing action but one which is limited in its duration:
Il lit tranquillement, fumant une cigarette. He’s reading calmly (a continuing action),
smoking a cigarette (an action of more
limited duration).
The present participle can replace a subordinate relative clause introduced by qui:
Seuls les étudiants qui ont la moyenne
réussiront.
Only the students who have (achieved) the
average mark will succeed.
Seuls les étudiants ayant la moyenne réussiront. Only the students having the average mark
will succeed.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
268
The present participle can replace a causal subordinate clause introduced by puisque
(since), étant donné que (in view of the fact that), parce que (because), comme (as):
Etant donné que sa télévision est en panne il
n’a pas pu voir le match. In view of the fact
that his televison isn’t working, he couldn’t
watch the match.
Sa télévision étant en panne, il n’a pas pu voir
le match. As his television was not working,
he couldn’t watch the match.
Il n’est pas allé à l’école parce qu’il était
malade. He didn’t go to school because he
was ill.
Étant malade, il n’est pas allé à l’école. Being
ill, he didn’t go to school.
It can be used with the semi-auxiliary verb aller to express the idea of progression or
continuity:
Les statistiques montrent que le chômage va
croissant.
The statistics show that unemployment goes
on growing.
As a verbal adjective
It keeps the -ant ending of the present participle but with the occasional small
change in spelling. The verbal adjective can therefore be spelled differently from the
present participle used as a verb:
Leurs ambitions différant (invariable present
participle) des nôtres, nous avons rédigé deux
projets différents (adjective in agreement
with plural noun).
Their ambitions differing from ours, we have
drafted two different projects.
It functions fully as an adjective and agrees in gender and number:
Ces tempêtes fréquentes sont décourageantes. These frequent storms are depressing.
Il a d’importantes informations à nous
communiquer.
He has some important information to tell us.
10.4.3 The present participle and the verbal adjective contrasted
present participle verbal adjective
As a verb
It expresses an action and behaves like a
verb.
Its form is invariable.
Je les ai vu encourageant leurs équipes. I’ve
seen them encouraging their teams.
As an adjective, formed from the present
participle of a verb
It agrees in gender and number with the
noun it quali es.
J’aime ces attitudes encourageantes. I like
these encouraging [i.e., positive] attitudes.
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269
present participle verbal adjective
It can be followed by an object
complement.
Je les ai vues encourageant leurs équipes
favorites. I’ve seen them encouraging their
favourite teams.
It can function either as an attributive or
predicative adjective (see 4, Key points):
C’étaient des gens exigeants. They were
demanding people.
Ils étaient exigeants. They were demanding.
It can be modi ed by an adverb of
manner, time, etc. (except ne) placed
after it.
Je les ai vues chantant joyeusement. I’ve
seen them singing cheerfully.
It can be replaced by a relative
subordinate clause.
Je les ai vues chantant (qui chantaient). I’ve
seen them singing.
It can be preceded by a re exive
pronoun.
Il marchait, se depêchant du mieux qu’il
pouvait. They walked, hurrying as best they
could.
It can be modi ed by a preceding adverb
(of degree or other) placed before it.
Elles sont souvent perturbantes. They are
often troubling.
It can be replaced by another adjective.
Elles sont excellentes (très bonnes). They are
excellent (very good).
Present participles and verbal adjectives with variations in spelling (see 4.13)
Verbs ending in -ger form their present participle in -geant and their verbal
adjective in -geant or -gent.
Verbs ending in -guer form their present participle in -guant and their verbal
adjective in -gant:
Le cyclisme est un sport fatiguant surtout les
muscles des mollets.
Cycling is a sport which tires the calf muscles
especially.
Le cyclisme est un sport fatigant. Cycling is a tiring sport.
Verbs ending in -quer and convaincre form their present participle in -quant but
some verbal adjectives end in -cant:
Les groupes communiquant les informations
auront du retard.
The groups communicating the news will be
delayed.
les vases communicants connected vessels
Verbal adjectives ending in -ent
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270
A number of verbal adjectives end in -ent instead of -ant. The present participle of these
verbs, however, always ends in -ant:
Les pneus d’aujourd’hui sont incontestablement
plus adhérents que jadis.
Tyres today have undoubtably got a better
grip than in the past.
Pour votre sécurité il vaut mieux choisir des pneus
adhérant solidement à la route.
For your safety it’s best to choose tyres
which grip the road well.
Examples of spelling differences
present participle verbal adjective present participle verbal adjective
adhérant (becoming
a member, gripping)
adhérent (binding) expédiant (sending,
dispatching)
expédient
(expedient)
communiquant
(communicating)
communicant (en
suite)
fatiguant (making
someone tired)
fatigant (tiresome,
arduous, tiring)
convainquant
(persuading,
convincing)
convaincant
(persuasive,
convincing)
in uant (having an
in uence on)
in uent
(in uential)
différant (differing) différent (different) négligeant
(neglecting, ignoring)
négligent (negligent,
careless)
divergeant
(diverging, differing)
divergent (divergent) précédant (being in
front/ahead of)
précédent (previous)
équivalant
(amounting, being
equivalent to)
équivalent (identical,
equivalent)
provoquant (causing,
provoking)
provocant
(provocative)
excellant (excelling
in)
excellent (excellent,
great)
10.4.4 The compound present participle
Formation
être or avoir with the present participle plus the past participle of the verb:
Le prix du gaz ayant augmenté, ils réduisirent
leur consommation.
The price of gas having increased they
reduced their consumption.
It has roughly the same uses as the present participle.
It expresses an action completed prior to another action:
Ayant ecouté les informations, il alla se
coucher.
Having listened to the news he went to bed.
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271
10.4.5 Nouns and prepositions derived from the present participle
as a noun les tenants et les aboutissants (the ins and outs)
un(e) assistant(e) (assistant)
un(e) débutant(e) (beginner)
un(e) participant(e) (participant)
un(e) passant(e) (passer-by)
as a preposition pendant le jour (during the day)
suivant le cas (as is the case)
10.5 The gerund
10.5.1 Formation
en + the present participle of the verb. The gerund corresponds to ‘while (doing) …’, ‘by
(doing)’ in English. The subject of both verbs is the same (see 12.5.29):
Il s’est cogné la tête en se baissant. He hit his head while ducking.
10.5.2 Uses
The gerund expresses:
Simultaneous or connected actions (‘at the moment when’):
Il a appris la nouvelle en écoutant la radio. He learned the news while listening to the
radio.
Je me suis blessé(e) en descendant du train. I injured myself while getting off the train.
Manner or means:
C’est en forgeant qu’on devient forgeron. Practice makes perfect.
En respectant les autres tu seras respecté. By respecting others you will be respected.
Time:
En laçant ses chaussures il vit le billet sous la
table.
While lacing his shoes he saw the ticket
under the table.
Cause:
C’est ce qui arrive en voulant n’en faire qu’à sa
tête !
That’s what happens when you want your
own way!
Condition:
En arrivant en avance tu auras la meilleure
place.
By arriving in advance you will get the best
seat.
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272
10.5.3 Tout + gerund
Tout + en + present participle is used to insist on:
Two simultaneous actions:
Elle téléphonait à une amie tout en cherchant
à se garer.
She was telephoning a friend while looking for
a parking place.
Two opposing ideas:
Il essaie l’examen tout en sachant qu’il ne
réussira pas.
He is attempting the exam while knowing that
he will not succeed.
10.5.4 The gerund in the negative
The gerund can be used negatively as follows:
In the usual way, ne … pas around the present participle:
En n’arrivant pas en avance, il court le risque
d’avoir la plus mauvaise place.
In failing to arrive in advance, he runs the risk
of getting the worst seat.
Sans + in nitive:
Il a traversé sans regarder. He crossed without looking.
10.5.5 Equivalents in French of the English form of the verb ending
in -ing
The form of the verb ending in -ing in English is frequently translated by the in nitive or
a noun, and not the present participle:
Il passe son temps à jouer aux jeux vidéo. He spends his time playing computer games.
Je n’ai aucune intention d’aller voir ce lm. I’ve no intention of going to see that
lm.
L’aviron est le sport que j’aime mieux. Rowing is the sport I like best.
10.6 The past participle
The past participle
The past participle is a special form of the verb which can act as an adjective, part of a
compound verb and a noun. The past participle in English is usually formed by adding
-(e)d to the verb: look > looked, etc. but there are many irregular past participles: nd >
found, go > gone, make > made, etc.
The past participle is an adjective, as in the phrase ‘a lost cause’, where ‘lost’ is the past
participle, describing the noun.
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273
The same word acts as a verb in the sentence ‘We’ve lost the match’. Here the auxiliary
verb ‘have’ combines with ‘lost’ to form the perfect tense.
A few nouns, such as ‘a drunk’ and ‘the damned’ are derived from past participles.
10.6.1 Formation
The past participle of regular verbs is formed by replacing the endings -er, -ir and -re of
the in nitive by é, i and u respectively:
in nitive radical ending past participle
ending
past participle
travailler (to
work)
travaill- -er -é travaillé
bâtir (to build) bât- -ir -i bâti
rendre (to give
back)
rend- -re -u rendu
Most irregular verbs have an irregular past participle. There are no clear rules for their
formation but irregular verbs can be grouped according to their endings.
10.6.2 Irregular past participles
Past participle ending in -é
Verbs ending in -er do not have irregular past participles. The irregular verbs être and
naitre are the only verbs which do not belong to this group to have a past participle
ending in é.
in nitive past participle
être to be été been
naitre to be born né born
Past participle ending in -u
These verbs form the majority of verbs in the -re group, and many verbs ending in -(o)ir :
irregular verb past participle
avoir eu had
boire bu drunk
connaître connu known
courir couru run
croire cru believed
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
274
irregular verb past participle
paraître, apparaître paru, apparu seemed, appeared
tenir tenu held
apercevoir aperçu perceived
vouloir voulu wanted
savoir su known
pouvoir pu been able
Past participle ending in -is
irregular verb past participle
mettre, permettre, commettre mis, permis, commis put, allowed, committed
prendre, comprendre,
surprendre
pris, compris, surpris took, understood, surprised
Past participle ending in -it
irregular verb past participle
dire dit said, told
conduire conduit driven
écrire écrit written
instruire instruit taught
Past participle ending in -ert
irregular verb past participle
ouvrir ouvert open, opened
offrir offert offered
souffrir souffert suffered
Other irregular verbs
irregular verb past participle
suivre suivi followed
faire fait done, made
atteindre atteint reached
joindre joint joined
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275
10.6.3 Nouns derived from past participles
As with the present participle, nouns are frequently derived from past participles:
produire (to produce) un produit (product)
permettre (to permit) un permis (permit)
faire (to do, make) un fait (deed)
vivre (to live) un vécu (personal experiences)
se tenir (to stand) une tenue (clothes)
suivre (to follow) un suivi (follow-up, monitoring)
devoir (to have to) un dû (due)
découvrir (to discover) un découvert (overdraft)
acquérir (to acquire) un acquis (gain)
Uses
to form compound tenses with the auxiliaries avoir and être:
J’ai parlé devant un large public. I spoke to a large audience.
to form the passive voice with the auxiliary être:
Ce livre est très apprécié par ses lecteurs. This book is much loved by its readers.
Note
In the passive the past participle agrees in gender and number with the subject of the
verb:
Ces livres sont très appréciés par leurs lecteurs. These books are much loved by their
readers.
The past participle can act as an adjective:
J’ai vu un homme assis qui observait des
passants pressés.
I saw a man sitting down, observing people
who were hurrying past.
10.6.4 Agreement of the past participle
In compound tenses such as the compound past, the pluperfect, etc. agreement with the
past participle follows certain rules.
Used without an auxiliary verb, the past participle acts as an adjective and agrees in
gender and number with the noun or pronoun it quali es:
l’année passée last year
le participe passé the past participle
Dans notre société nous avons 3 voitures louées
et une achetée.
In our company we have 3 hired cars and one
bought car.
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276
When conjugated with être, the past participle agrees in number and gender with the
subject of the sentence:
Le sort en est jeté. The die is cast.
« Quand la bise fut venue, la cigale se trouva
fort dépourvue » (La Fontaine).
When the North wind came, the cicada was
without food [lit. deprived].
When conjugated with avoir, the past participle does not agree with the subject but
with the direct object if, and only if, the direct object is placed before the past
participle:
Direct object after, no agreement: Nous avons écrit cette lettre ensemble. We wrote this letter
together.
Direct object before, agreement: Cette lettre, nous l’avons écrite ensemble. This letter, we
wrote it together.
Indirect object, no agreement: Nous leur avons parlé nous-mêmes. We have spoken to them
ourselves.
If the past participle is connected with several subjects or objects that are placed
before it, agreement is made according to whether they are linked or not by:
et or a comma: the elements are combined and the participle is in the plural:
Son père et sa mère furent récompensés par
l’État.
Her father and mother were rewarded by the
State.
ou or ni: the elements can be combined or not. When they are, the past participle is
in the plural. When they are not, the past participle agrees with the last element:
Ni le père ni la mère ne seront récompensés. Neither the father nor the mother will be
rewarded.
Le père ou la mère sera récompensée. The father or the mother will be rewarded.
With conjunctions of comparison like comme (as), autant que (as much as), ainsi que (as
well as), etc. the past participle is in the plural if the elements are combined:
La voiture comme le train sont appréciés par les
voyageurs.
The car as well as the train are liked by
travellers.
C’est Marie autant que Pierre que j’ai appréciés. It’s Marie as well as Pierre that I liked.
The past participle agrees with the rst element if the elements are not closely linked:
La voiture, comme le train, est appréciée par les
voyageurs.
The car, as well as the train, is liked by
travellers.
C’est Marie plutôt que Pierre que j’ai appréciée. It’s Marie rather than Pierre that I liked.
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277
Special cases
In certain cases the above general rules do not apply.
Invariable expressions
Ci-joint, ci-inclus (enclosed, attached) behave like adverbs when they are placed before
the noun or pronoun, and so are invariable. They vary in gender and number when
placed after the noun or pronoun:
Ci-joint les documents que vous avez sollicités. /
Les documents ci-joints sont ceux que vous
avez sollicités.
The documents that you requested are
enclosed. / The enclosed documents are
the ones that you requested.
Ci-inclus les lettres demandées / les lettres
ci-incluses.
Enclosed the letters requested / the enclosed
letters.
Étant donné (given [that]), mis à part (excepting) and passé (after) may be either variable or
invariable when they are placed before a noun:
Passé cette date … / Passée cette date … Once the date has passed …
Etant donnés les faits … / Étant donné les
faits …
Given the facts …
Attendu (considering), compris (including), non-compris (excluding), y compris
(including), entendu (agreed / heard), excepté (except), supposé (alleged), vu (given /
considering) are considered as prepositions, and are therefore invariable, when
placed before the noun or pronoun. When placed after the noun or pronoun they
are variable:
Vu ses résultats, elle ne sera pas promue. Given her results, she won’t be promoted.
Tout le monde l’a critiquée, excepté ses amies. /
Tout le monde l’a critiquée, ses amies
exceptées.
Everyone criticized her except her friends.
Entendu les témoins, il devrait etre acquitté. /
Les témoins entendus, il devrait être acquitté.
The witnesses having been heard, he should
be acquitted.
The participles cru (believed), dit (said), dû (owed), pensé (thought), permis
(permitted), prévu (planned), pu (been able), su (known), voulu (wanted), etc., are
invariable when used in a relative subordinate clause, with an in nitive or other
clause understood as a direct object. The relative pronoun que is then the object of
the verb that is understood and not the verb containing the past participle:
Elle a accompli toutes les tâches qu’elle avait
prévu.
She’s carried out all the tasks that she had
planned. ([prévu] de faire is understood).
Il a tenu toutes les promesses qu’il avait dit. He kept all the promises that he had made.
([qu’il avait dit] qu’il tiendrait is understood).
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
278
Agreement of the past participle between que and que or que and qui (see 14.1)
The past participle is invariable when it is preceded by the conjunction que and
followed by the relative pronoun qui:
Les touristes que j’avais prévu qui arriveraient
dimanche sont arrivés samedi.
The tourists that I had anticipated would
arrive on Sunday arrived on Saturday.
The past participle is invariable when it is preceded by the relative pronoun que and
followed by the conjunction que:
Les eurs qu’elle aurait voulu qu’on lui offre … The owers that she would have wished to
be given to her …
Note
If the rst relative pronoun que is the direct object complement of the participle,
agreement is made in the normal way:
Les personnes que tu as prévenues que je
viendrais …
The people you forewarned that I would
come …
Participles related to measures or estimates such as coûté (cost), valu (valued), mesuré
(measured), marché (walked), couru (ran), pesé (weighed), vécu (lived), dormi (slept),
régné (reigned), duré (lasted) are invariable when they are used intransitively with an
adverbial phrase of measurement:
Les 10 ans qu’aura régné le roi. The ten years that the King will have reigned … (Les 10 ans
is an adverbial phrase of time, i.e., it answers the question: How long has the King
reigned?)
Les 50 livres que ça m’a coûté. The £50 that that cost me. (Les 50 livres is an adverbial
phrase of degree, i.e., it answers the question: How much did that cost me?)
Les 8 km que j’ai couru. The 8 km that I ran. (8 km is a not the direct object but an
adverbial phrase of degree, i.e., it answers the question: How many kilometres have I
run?, and not What?)
But Les risques que j’ai courus. The risks that I have taken. (There is agreement because
risques is the direct object and so courir is employed transitively.)
In the same way in: Les 90 ans qu’elle a vécu. (The 90 years that she has lived), Les 90 ans is
an adverbial phrase, and so there is no agreement, but in La vie qu’elle a vécue (The life
that she has lived), La vie is the direct object and so there is agreement.
Laisser and faire followed by an in nitive
The past participles of faire and laisser followed by an in nitive are invariable. They are
considered as semi-auxiliary verbs:
La maison qu’elle a fait construire. The house that she has had built.
Il les ont laissé fuir. He let them run away.
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279
The past participle followed by an in nitive
The past participle conjugated with avoir and followed by the in nitive agrees with
a direct object that precedes the verb, provided it is related to the participle. If the
in nitive itself has a direct object the participle also agrees:
Ces gens, je les ai vus peindre ce mur. I have seen those people painting that wall.
Je les ai entendus dire des mensonges. I have heard them tell lies.
If the direct object relates to the in nitive the past participle is invariable:
Je les ai prié d’arrêter. I’ve begged them to stop.
If the direct object carries out an action expressed by the in nitive, in an active
meaning, the past participle agrees. If it ‘receives’ the action, in a passive meaning,
the participle does not agree. In the latter case the sentence could continue by
adding an agent, preceded by par:
Les gens que j’ai vus peindre. The people I saw painting.
Les murs que j’ai vu peindre (par les gens). The walls I saw being painted (by the people).
The past participle of impersonal verbs
The past participle of impersonal verbs is invariable:
La quantité d’eau qu’il a fallu The amount of water that was necessary
Agreement with en
When the object is en the past participle is usually invariable, but it can agree with en,
according to the speaker’s intention:
Des livres, j’en ai lus des dizaines cet été. Books, I’ve read dozens of them this summer.
(The focus is on the numbers of books
that have been read, therefore plural)
Des livres, j’en ai cherché partout. Books, I’ve looked everywhere for them.
(The focus is on the idea of looking for
books, therefore singular)
Agreement with collective nouns
When the antecedent of a relative pronoun is a collective noun, e.g. groupe (group),
foule (crowd), les trois quarts des (three quarters of), la moitié des (half of), le tiers des (a
third of), etc., followed by a complement that represents the parts of the collective
entity (e.g. young folk, sheep, people, etc.) the past participle agrees either with the
collective noun (singular) or with the things represented (plural), according to the
intention of the speaker (see 1.1.3):
Un troupeau de moutons que le chien avait
poussé vers la bergerie
A ock of sheep that the sheepdog had
driven towards the sheepfold (the ock is
driven towards the sheepfold)
Un troupeau de moutons qu’on avait tondus A ock of sheep that had been shorn (the
sheep are shorn)
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
280
Similarly,
La moitié des élèves était restée. Half the pupils had remained.
La moitié des élèves étaient restés. Half the pupils had remained.
When the collective noun is dizaine (about ten), douzaine (a dozen), centaine (about a
hundred), une in nité de (an in nite number of), un grand nombre de (a great number
of), la plupart de (most of), etc., agreement is with the complement:
Une douzaine d’individus que j’avais attendus sur
le quai …
A dozen individuals that I had waited for on
the platform …
Une in nité de lettres que j’ai écrites … An in nite number of letters that I have
written …
With adverbs of quantity or degree like peu (few), trop (too much / many), combien
(how much / many), the past participle agrees in general with the complement (see
6.3.2):
Peu d’élèves sont restés. Few pupils have remained.
Trop de verres se sont cassés. Too many glasses were broken.
Agreement with the past participle of pronominal verbs (see 8.4)
All pronominal verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary verb être but not all participles
agree in the same way.
verbs that are essentially pronominal like s’enfuir (to run away), se repentir (to
repent) etc., behave like verbs conjugated with être, and so the participle agrees with
the subject of the verb:
Elles se sont enfuies. They ran away.
Verbs that are occasionally pronominal behave like verbs conjugated with avoir and
the participle follows the rule for agreement for all verbs conjugated with avoir.
a If there is no direct object the participle agrees with the re exive pronoun which
refers to the subject:
Elle s’est baignée. She bathed.
b If the direct object is placed after the verb, there is no agreement:
Elle s’est lavé les mains. She washed her hands.
c If the direct object comes before the verb, the participle agrees:
La patte qu’il s’est cass
ée … The paw that it broke …
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281
Agreement of past participles with double compound tenses
Double compound tenses are conjugated with a double auxiliary. These tenses
express actions already completed in relation to other actions, themselves carried
out previously, for which compound tenses are used:
Quand j’ai en n eu ni mon travail, j’ai couru voir
mon copain.
lit. When I have had nished my work, I ran
to see my friend.
In the double compound tenses agreement is, in general, only with the last past
participle:
Ces injures que soi-disant j’aurais eu proférées. lit. These insults that I supposedly would have
had uttered.
Agreement is, however, permitted with two participles:
Ces injures que soi-disant j’aurais eues proférées.
Agreement of the past participle with on
When on is the equivalent of nous in speech a following past participle with être is
in the plural (see 3.1.3):
Bien sûr qu’on est pressés. Of course we’re in a hurry!
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
282
Imperatives, in nitives and participles in context
En famille
Mère : Qu’avez-vous fait à l’école les enfants ?
Pierre : On s’est ennuyés terriblement.
Mère : Allons ! Arrête de dire des bêtises !
Pierre : Parce que s’ennuyer et le dire, c’est une bêtise ?
Paul : Nous, on a ri au contraire. Avant d’entrer, quelqu’un avait fait une caricature
très ressemblante du prof au tableau. Le prof est entré en regardant le tableau, et
devinez ce qui s’est passé !
Mathieu : Il n’a pu que se casser la fi gure.
Paul : Excellente réponse, mon cher ! En effet, le prof a trébuché sur un cartable qui
trainait; il a voulu se retenir au bureau mais il était trop loin et il n’a pas pu
l’atteindre.
Remarque bien ! C’est un prof sympa d’habitude, mais pour avoir perturbé la classe,
il nous a donné 30 problèmes de maths à résoudre. J’ai dit que je n’avais rien fait,
mais je n’ai pas été entendu. Il n’a rien voulu savoir. C’est ce qui arrive quand on
veut jouer au plus fi n, a-t-il dit. J’ai donc dû faire les exercices en question.
Mère : Bon, les enfants, éteignez vos portables, rangez vos consoles et mettons-nous
à table ! Votre père va arriver d’un instant à l’autre.
Pierre : En attendant je vais me laver les mains.
Mère : Descends sans courir dans les escaliers ! Et n’oublie pas d’éteindre la lumière !
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283
Qu’avez-vous fait … ? irregular past participle [10.6.2]
On s’est ennuyés terriblement. past participle agreement with on = nous
[10.6.4]
Allons ! Arrête de dire des bêtises ! imperatives in rst person plural and second
person singular [10.1.1]
Parce que s’ennuyer
et le dire c’est une
bêtise ?
in nitives [10.2.5]
Nous, on a ri au contraire. regular past participle -ir verb [10.6.1]
Avant d’entrer … in nitive after a preposition [10.2.3]
une caricature très ressemblante present participle, verbal adjective [10.4.2/3]
Le prof est entré en regardant le tableau, regular past participle -er verb [10.6.1]
gerund [10.5.2]
… devinez ce qui s’est passé ! imperative second person plural [10.1.1]
Il n’a pu que se
casser la gure. irregular past participle [10.6.2]
in nitive after a modal verb [10.2.3]
Excellente
réponse, present participle, verbal adjective [10.4.2/3]
le prof a trébuché sur un cartable qui trainait regular past participle of -er verb [10.6.1]
il a voulu se retenir au bureau irregular past participle [10.6.2]
in nitive after a modal verb [10.2.3]
il n’a pas
pu l’atteindre. irregular past participle [10.6.2]
in nitive after a modal verb [10.2.3]
pour avoir perturbé la classe past in
nitive [10.2.2]
il nous a donné 30 problèmes de maths à
résoudre.
regular past participle of -er verb [10.6.1]
followed by in nitive preceded by à [10.2.6]
J’ai
dit que … irregular past participle [10.6.2]
je n’ai pas été entendu. past participle of être in passive verb [10.6.2]
regular past participle of -re verb [10.6.1]
Il n’a rien voulu savoir. irregular past participle [10.6.2]
in nitive after a modal verb [10.2.3]
J’ai donc dû faire les exercices en question. irregular past participle [10.6.2]
in
nitive after a modal verb [10.2.3]
Bon, les enfants, éteignez vos portables,
rangez
vos consoles et mettons-nous à
table !
imperatives in second person plural (-ez)
and rst person plural (-ons) [10.1.1]
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
284
Votre père va arriver d’un instant à l’autre. aller, verb followed by in nitive [10.2.6]
En attendant je vais me laver les mains. gerund [10.5.2]
aller, verb followed by in nitive [10.2.6]
Descends sans courir dans les escaliers ! imperative in second person singular
[10.1.1] in
nitive after sans
[10.5.4]
Et n’oublie pas d’éteindre la lumière ! negative imperative second person singular
[10.1.1]
oublier + de + in
nitive [10.2.6]
Exercises
1 The in nitive
Put the sentences into indirect speech:
Example: Je lui ai dit: « calme-toi! »
Je lui ai dit de se calmer.
1. Je lui ai dit : « dépêche-toi ! »
2. On nous a dit : « laissez-tomber les sucreries ! »
3. Ils nous ont recommandé : « faites vos courses après 18 heures ! »
4. Le médecin nous a recommandé : « mangez des fruits et des légumes ! »
5. Le médecin m’a conseillé : « pesez-vous régulièrement ! »
6. Le médecin m’a conseillé : « prenez votre pouls tous les matins ! »
7. Le médecin m’a dit : « ne maigrissez pas trop vite ! »
8. Le médecin m’a répété : « ne vous faites pas de soucis ! Reposez-vous ! »
9. Mon mari m’a dit : « ne crois pas tout ce que disent les médecins ! »
10. J’ai dit à mon mari : « occupe-toi de tes affaires ! »
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285
2 The imperative
Put the sentences into direct speech:
Example: Il nous a dit de nous dépêcher.
Il nous a dit: « dépêchez-vous! »
1. Le professeur nous a demandé de ne pas oublier les livres.
2. Il nous a conseillé de ne pas boire trop de café.
3. Le professeur nous a conseillé de bien réviser le cours.
4. Il nous a suggéré de laisser de côté les 3 premiers chapitres.
5. Il nous a précisé de bien penser à apporter une pièce d’identité.
6. Il a répété de ne pas commettre la même faute que l’an dernier.
7. Il a dit d’apporter un dictionnaire.
8. Il a dit d’éviter tout appareil électronique à l’examen.
9. Il a dit ne pas être surpris par le sujet d’examen.
10. Il a dit nous souhaiter bonne chance.
3 Put the verbs in brackets into either the in nitive, the past participle, the
present participle, the imperative or the compound past:
1. (Couper) le circuit avant de (toucher) aux ls !
2. Je le (laisser parler) et je lui (répondre).
3. Le (laisser) sans (parler) 5 minutes c’est le (torturer).
4. C’est (irriter) qu’elle (se présenter) devant le directeur.
5. Mais (arrêter) donc de (se plaindre) et (se mettre) au travail !
6. En (vouloir) trop bien (faire) elle (se fracturer) la main.
7. Elle (n’aimer que) une chose, (se faire) (bronzer) sur la plage.
8. Ils (parti) (jouer) sur la plage après (se reposer) l’après-midi.
9. Elles me (laisser) (se débrouiller) tout seul.
10. Vous (ne pas avoir) la patience de (attendre).
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
286
4 Agreement of the past participle conjugated with avoir. Put the following
sentences into the compound past tense:
1. Quelles séries télévisées regardez-vous ?
2. Quelle sorte de lms préfères-tu ?
3. Quels ingrédients trouvez-vous dans ce magasin ?
4. Voici les fruits que je t’apporte.
5. Voici le stylo et la eur que je t’offre pour ton anniversaire.
6. C’est le livre d’exercices que je te prête.
7. Voilà les revues et les magazines que je lis.
8. C’est la liste des lms que j’aime.
9. Ce sont les évènements dont je parle dans mon article.
10. C’est la personne à qui elle écrit souvent.
5 Present participle and verbal adjective.
Make the underlined words agree when necessary.
1. Les jeunes courant dans la forêt étaient nombreux.
2. Ce sont de bons pneus adhérent .
3. En tant que membres adhérant au club, ils ont droit aux réductions.
4. C’est une position fatigant pour les jambes.
5. Ils sont arrivés brûlant de èvre.
6. Ils sont arrivés parcourant les allées par petits groupes.
7. Les jours précédant son mariage furent moins reposant que les jours le
suivant .
8. Elles ont eu des débuts encourageant .
9. Ces derniers jours furent plus fatigant que les précédent .
10. Elles sont arrivées en chantant à tue-tête.
287
11 VERBS 4 : THE SUBJUNCTIVE
The subjunctive is one of the moods of the verb. It is important to distinguish between
moods and tenses, which are sometimes confused. In order to understand the subjunctive
mood it is useful to compare it with two other moods, the indicative and the imperative.
Each of these three moods corresponds to a distinctive attitude in the mind of the
speaker (see 9.1).
Broadly speaking, the indicative is used when the speaker wishes to state a fact or a
certainty:
I know that he is here.
The imperative is for commands:
Come here!
The subjunctive is for unreality, doubt or hypothesis:
I wish that Simon were here.
If I were you I’d apply for the job.
In the last two examples, which show two of the few surviving subjunctive uses in
English, the speaker is clearly addressing an unreality (Simon isn’t here; I am not you). In
both cases the subjunctive form ‘were’, rather than ‘was’, is used. It is essential to
understand that, unlike in English, the subjunctive is used extensively in French, and
must be employed in certain circumstances.
KEY POINTS
The fundamental idea that underlies the subjunctive in French is that, in the mind of the
speaker, the action of the verb is not a reality. It is therefore the mood of subjectivity. Note
especially that:
The subjunctive is used, for the most part, in subordinate clauses. The attitude of the
subject of the main clause determines whether the verb in the subordinate clause is
subjunctive or not.
The subjunctive is normally used if the action in the subordinate clause is considered to
be doubtful, unlikely, unreal, or if a personal feeling (such as a wish, fear or order) is
expressed towards the action.
For practical purposes it is useful to learn certain expressions and conjunctions after
which the subjunctive has to be used.
The subjunctive is not used in all tenses, and there are some differences between its use
in writing and speaking.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
288
The following examples compare indicative and subjunctive uses:
Indicative Subjunctive
Je sais qu’il sera là plus tôt la prochaine fois.
I know he will be there earlier next time.
(indicative because considered to be a fact
by the speaker)
Je veux qu’il soit là plus tôt la prochaine fois.
I want him to be there earlier next time.
(subjunctive because the speaker wishes
something to happen)
Les nuits je rêve que nous sommes amis.
At night I dream that we are friends.
(this actually happens)
Je doute que vous m’aimiez un jour.
I doubt that you will ever love me. (the speaker
is uncertain that something will happen)
Je cache les cadeaux parce qu’il vient.
I’m hiding the presents because he’s
coming. (his coming is a reality)
Cache les cadeaux de peur qu’il ne vienne !
Hide the presents in case he comes! (the
speaker is afraid that something might happen)
Tenses in which the subjunctive is used
There is a marked difference between the use of the subjunctive in speech and in writing:
In written French the subjunctive is used in four tenses: the present, the past, the
imperfect and the pluperfect.
In spoken French, although of cially three tenses may be used – the present, the
past and double compound past – in fact it is rare for any tense other than the
present and past to be heard.
The subjunctive has no future tense.
VERBS 4: THE SUBJUNCTIVE
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289
11.1 The present subjunctive
11.1.1 Formation
The endings of the present subjunctive are as follows for all groups of verbs, except for
avoir and être:
je -e nous -ions
tu -es vous -iez
il / elle -e ils / elles -ent
Note
In the rst and second persons plural of the verb, the present indicative of -er verbs and
subjunctive are differentiated by the insertion of -i- in the subjunctive form. This -i- is to
be found in all tenses and all verbs of the subjunctive.
Regular verbs
To form the present subjunctive it is essential to know the radical of the verb. For regular
verbs:
1) take the third person plural of the present indicative;
2) remove the ending, leaving the radical;
3) conjugate the verb adding the subjunctive endings to the radical.
In nitive 3rd person plural
of the present
indicative
Radical Examples
of
endings
Example of
subjunctive
-er verbs parl-er parl-ent parl- -ions que nous parlions
-ir verbs n-ir niss-ent niss- -iez que vous nissiez
-re verbs craind-re craign-ent craign- -es que tu craignes
Irregular verbs
Some irregular verbs, e.g. aller, savoir, tenir, have irregular radicals (see 9.2).
avoir and être form the present subjunctive as follows:
être avoir
que je / j’ soi-s ai-e
que tu soi-s ai-es
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
290
être avoir
qu’ il / elle soi-t ai-t
que nous soy-ons ay-ons
que vous soy-ez ay-ez
qu’ ils / elles soi-ent ai-ent
11.2 The compound past subjunctive
11.2.1 Formation
The compound past subjunctive is formed from the auxiliary verb avoir or être in the
present subjunctive plus the past participle of the verb in question. The formation of the
compound past subjunctive is the same for all verbs.
In nitive Perfect
indicative
Present
subjunctive
of avoir or
être
Past
participle
of the verb
Compound past
subjunctive
-er verbs march-er j’ai march-é que j’ai-e march-é que j’aie marché
-ir verbs atterr-ir j’ai atterr-i que j’ai-e atterr-i que j’aie atterri
-re verbs attend-re j’ai attend-u que j’ai-e attend- u que j’aie attendu
verbs
conjugated
with être
venir je suis
ven-u/e
que je soi-s ven-u / e que je sois
venu/e
11.3 The imperfect subjunctive
11.3.1 Formation
To conjugate the imperfect subjunctive it is important to know the past historic form.
There are two steps:
1) take the second person singular of the simple past;
2) add the following endings to the radical:
-se, -ses, (vowel + circum ex) t, -sions, -siez, -sent
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291
Note
For -er verbs, the third person singular invariably ends in a vowel with a circum ex
accent plus t: il marcha – qu’il marchât. For all other verbs, the third person singular of the
imperfect subjunctive is distinguished from the third person singular of the simple past
only by the circum ex accent: il connut (he knew) – qu’il connût ; il vit (he saw) – qu’il vît.
In nitive 2nd person
singular of the
simple past
indicative
Examples of
endings
Example of
subjunctive
-er verbs parl-er parlas -sions que nous parlassions
-ir verbs n-ir nis -ît qu’il nît
-re verbs craind-re craignis -ses que tu craignisses
Auxiliaries être and avoir
être avoir
que je / j’ fus-se eus-se
que tu fus-ses eus-ses
qu’ il / elle fû-t eû-t
que nous fus-sions eus-sions
que vous fus-siez eus-siez
qu’ ils / elles fus-sent eus-sent
11.3.2 Uses
The imperfect subjunctive is used for actions that are simultaneous with or take place
after the action of a main verb:
Depuis son doctorat, elle appréciait qu’on la
considérât avec autant de respect
(simultaneous)
After her doctorate she was pleased that she
was considered with so much respect.
La prochaine fois, elle souhaiterait qu’on la
considérât avec plus de respect. (after)
The next time she would wish to be
considered with more respect.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
292
11.4 The pluperfect subjunctive
11.4.1 Formation
The pluperfect subjunctive is a compound tense which is formed by the auxiliary avoir or
être in the imperfect subjunctive followed by the past participle of the verb.
In nitive Imperfect
subjunctive of
avoir or être
Past participle
of the verb
Past subjunctive
-er verbs march-er que j’eusse march-é que j’eusse
marché
-ir verbs atterr-ir qu’il eût atterr-i qu’il eût atterri
-re verbs attend-re que nous eussions attend- u que nous
eussions attendu
verbs
conjugated
with être
venir que je fusse ven-u/e que je fusse
venu/e
Examples:
Pour réussir, il aurait fallu qu’il eût travaillé dès
le début.
To succeed it would have been necessary for
him to work from the beginning.
Pour avoir du beau temps, il fallait qu’elles
fussent venues plus tôt.
To get good weather, it was necessary for
them to have come earlier.
11.4.2 Uses
The pluperfect subjunctive is only found in very formal or literary discourse. It is used
when the main clause is in the past and the action of the subordinate clause takes place
before that of the main clause:
Elle souhaitait tellement qu’il eût vu des photos
de son enfance.
She wished so much that he had seen the
photos of her childhood.
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VERBS 4: THE SUBJUNCTIVE
293
11.5 The double compound past subjunctive
11.5.1 Formation
This tense is not used in the written language and scarcely used in the spoken language.
The double compound form of verbs applies to almost all compound tenses. It is a
compound tense whose auxiliary verb is itself a compound (‘double compound’).
In the subjunctive, the double compound form is derived from the past subjunctive and
the pluperfect subjunctive.
The double compound form is obtained by adding the auxiliary avoir in a compound
form, its own past participle being followed by the past participle of the verb. There are
therefore two consecutive past participles.
In nitive Past subjunctive Auxiliary avoir followed
by its past participle
Double compound past
subjunctive
travailler que j’aie travaillé … aie eu … que j’aie eu travaillé
In nitive Pluperfect subjunctive Auxiliary avoir followed
by its past participle
Double compound
pluperfect subjunctive
travailler que j’eusse travaillé … eusse eu … que j’eusse eu travaillé
11.5.2 Uses
Double compound tenses are used mostly in the southern half of France.
These tenses are used to describe completed actions that take place prior to actions that
have themselves taken place already before other actions. This is especially true of
subordinate clauses of time:
Il fallait qu’il ait eu terminé son essai en moins
d’une heure.
lit. He must have had nished his essay in less
than half an hour.
Double compound tenses are also used as a form of insistence and they underline the fact
that the action took place at a remote time in the past : Je l’ai eu appris (lit. I had had
learned it) (what is understood is ‘I did learn it a long time ago and I’ve now forgotten
it’):
Il fallait que j’eusse eu ni à temps. lit. It was necessary that I had had nished on
time. (What is understood is: It was
necessary to have nished on time, now
it’s too late.)
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
294
11.6 Examples of the ve subjunctive tenses
Subjunctive tense Examples
Present Je pense qu’il quittera le pays avant qu’on nisse son procès.
I think he’ll leave the country before his trial nishes.
Past S’il ne veut pas être jugé, il faut qu’il ait quitté le pays avant son
procès.
If he doesn’t want to be judged he’ll have to leave the country
beforehis trial.
Imperfect Pour éviter le procès, il fallait qu’il quittât le pays avant.
To avoid the trial, it was necessary for him to leave the
country beforehand.
Pluperfect Il aurait fallu qu’il eût quitté le pays avant son arrestation.
He would have had to leave the country before his arrest.
Double compound past Il était hors du pays bien avant qu’on ait eu ni son procès.
He was out of the country well before his trial had nished.
11.7 Uses of the subjunctive
11.7.1 The subjunctive in subordinate clauses dependent on certain
verbs
Wishes, expectation, orders, permission, prohibition, advice
Wishes, desires, expectation
vouloir / désirer / souhaiter to wish, want
tenir à* to insist
attendre to wait
s’attendre à* to expect
avoir envie que to want, feel like
avoir besoin que to need
Je veux qu’il soit plus rapide la prochaine fois. I
want him to be quicker next time.
Il attend que nous nous décidions. He is
waiting for us to make a decision.
Elle s’attend à ce qu’ils nissent les travaux
d’un moment à l’autre. She expects them to
nish the work any time now.
Cet enfant a besoin que vous le réconfortiez.
That child needs you to comfort him.
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295
Orders, permission, prohibition
exiger to demand
ordonner to order, command
permettre to allow
admettre to admit
accepter / consentir à* to accept, agree to
empêcher to prevent
s’opposer à* / défendre / interdire to oppose
refuser to refuse
J’exige que tu me dises ce qui s’est vraiment
passé. I insist that you tell me what really
happened.
Ils consentent à ce que vous preniez la parole
… Mais ils s’opposent à ce que vous parliez
longtemps. They agree that you should speak
… But they are against you speaking for a
long time.
Je n’accepte pas qu’on nous fasse travailler le
dimanche. I don’t agree that we should be
made to work on Sundays.
*Note
In the case of verbs and expressions followed by à, que is preceded by ce:
– consentir à ce qu’il l’accompagne. to agree that he accompanies them.
– s’attendre à ce qu’il l’accompagne. to expect that he accompanies them.
Recommendation, advice
conseiller to advise
recommander to recommend
suggérer to suggest
déconseiller to advise against
Je suggère que vous changiez toutes les
cartouches de votre imprimante. I suggest that
you change all your printer cartridges.
Les dentistes déconseillent que vous donniez
trop de bonbons aux enfants. Dentists advise
against giving too many sweets to children.
Note
The verb espérer (to hope, expect) is followed by the indicative when used in the
af rmative:
J’espère qu’il tiendra sa promesse. I hope that he will keep his promise.
It can however be followed by the subjunctive when used in the negative:
Je n’ai jamais espéré qu’elle fût si brillante dans
ses études.
I never expected that she would be such a
brilliant student.
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Feelings such as love, hate, anger, surprise; judgement
Love, hate, sadness, anger, distress
aimer to love
détester to hate
apprécier to like, appreciate
être impatient que … to be impatient that
être content / heureux / er que … to be
happy / content / proud that
Cela fait plaisir que (I’m) pleased that
être triste / désolé que … to be sad / sorry
that
être furieux / fâché / mécontent / déçu que …
to be furious / angry / displeased /
disappointed that
trouver absurde que / avoir honte que to nd
(it) absurd that / to be ashamed that
ne pas avoir le sentiment / l’impression que not
to have the feeling / impression that
Je suis désolé que vous preniez les choses si
mal. I am sorry that you take things so
badly.
Il est fâché que vous ayez échoué au concours.
He’s annoyed that you have failed the exam.
Je suis impatient qu’on se mette à table. I’m
eager to sit down to eat.
Surprise, astonishment
s’étonner to be surprised
être étonné, surpris, choqué que … to be
astonished / surprised / shocked that
Je suis agréablement surpris que les musées
soient gratuits au Royaume-Uni. I’m agreeably
surprised that museum entry is free in the
UK.
Appreciation, judgement
préférer to prefer
il est préférable que it is preferable that
déplorer to deplore
regretter to regret
ne pas être sûr que not to be sure that
trouver normal / anormal / juste que to nd
(it) normal / abnormal / just that
Je déplore que les trains soient si chers !
I deplore the high cost of rail fares [lit. that
trains are so expensive].
Elles préfèrent qu’on passe par l’autoroute.
They prefer us to take the motorway.
Je trouve anormal qu’il soit si nerveux.
I nd it unusual that he’s so nervous.
Doubt, fear
Doubt
douter to doubt Je doute qu’ils soient de gauche. I doubt if they
are left-wingers.
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Fear*
avoir peur to be afraid
craindre to fear
redouter to dread
trembler to be terri ed
J’ai bien peur qu’il ne* soit encore bloqué dans
les embouteillages. I’m afraid that he may still
be held up by traf c jams.
*After verbs of fearing the verb in the subordinate clause is normally preceded by ne. In this case ne is redundant and
the verb does not have a negative sense.
11.7.2 The subjunctive used after verbs which express a degree of
doubt on the part of the speaker.
Verbs like croire (to believe), penser (to think), trouver (to nd), être certain (to be certain),
être sûr (to be sure), se souvenir (to remember) are followed by the indicative when
expressing a fact in the af rmative. However, when these verbs are used in the negative
or interrogative in the inverted form they can be followed either by the indicative or
(more usually) by the subjunctive, to re ect the additional degree of doubt.
Af rmative Negative Interrogative with inversion of
the subject
Je trouve qu’ils ont trop
dépensé ce mois-ci.
I think that they have
spent too much this
month.
Je ne trouve pas qu’ils ont trop
dépensé ce mois-ci. (the speaker
is sure of his facts)
Je ne trouve pas qu’ils aient trop
dépensé ce mois-ci. (the speaker
lacks certainty)
I don’t think that they have
spent too much this month.
Trouves-tu qu’ils ont trop dépensé
ce mois-ci ?
Trouves-tu qu’ils aient trop
dépensé ce mois-ci ?
Do you think that they have
spent too much this month?
Il est certain qu’il a fait
faillite.
It’s certain that he has
gone bankrupt.
Il n’est pas certain qu’il a fait
faillite.
Il n’est pas certain qu’il ait fait
faillite.
It’s not certain that he has gone
bankrupt.
Est-il certain qu’il a fait faillite ?
Est-il certain qu’il ait fait faillite ?
Is it certain that he has gone
bankrupt?
Je me souviens qu’elle a
le teint mat
. I remem-
ber that she has an
olive complexion.
Je ne me souviens pas qu’elle a le
teint mat.
I don’t remember that she has
an olive complexion. (a
comment on my memory)
Je ne me souviens pas qu’elle ait
le teint mat. I don’t remember
that she has a dark complexion.
(the speaker has a doubt about
the colour of her skin)
Se souvient-il qu’elle a le teint
mat ? Does he remember that
she has an olive complexion? (a
question about his memory)
Te souviens-tu qu’elle ait le teint
mat ? Do you remember that
she has a dark complexion?
(the speaker queries the colour
of her skin)
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
298
Af rmative Negative Interrogative with inversion of
the subject
Je crois que le monde
va mieux. I think the
world is getting
better.
Je ne crois pas que le monde va
mieux. (the speaker contradicts
an interlocutor and is sure of
his view)
Je ne crois pas que le monde aille
mieux (the speaker is not very
sure of his view)
I don’t believe the world is
getting better.
Crois-tu que le monde va mieux ?
(the speaker is sure that it is
not)
Crois-tu que le monde aille
mieux ? (the speaker is unsure
of his view)
Do you believe the world is
getting better?
The subjunctive is used in the same way after verbs of saying and thinking, such as dire
(to say), af rmer (to assert), déclarer (to state), prétendre (to maintain), nier (to deny).
Af rmative Negative Interrogative form with
inversion of the subject
Je dis que vous cherchez à
m’intimider. I am saying that
you are trying to intimidate
me.
Je ne dis pas que vous
cherchez à m’intimider.
Je ne dis pas que vous
cherchiez à m’intimider.
I am not saying that you are
trying to intimidate me.
Dis-tu que nous cherchons à
t’intimider ? (Is this your
belief?)
Dis-tu que nous cherchions à
t’intimider ? (Is this what you
are saying?)
Are you saying that we are
trying to intimidate you?
11.7.3 The subjunctive after certain conjunctions
Time
avant que + redundant ne
before the verb
jusqu’à ce que up to, until
en attendant que while
Note: après que, after, is
followed by the indicative
Je dois partir avant qu’il (ne) soit trop tard.
I must leave before it is too late.
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299
Purpose
a n que so that
pour que so that
de façon que in such a way as to
de manière que in such a way as
to
de sorte que (expressing a
purpose not a consequence) so
that
Prête-lui un dictionnaire pour qu’il puisse traduire.
Lend him a dictionary so that he can do the translation.
Il prendra le bus de sorte qu’il vienne plus tôt (synonym of
a n qu’il – purpose). He’ll catch the bus so that he can
arrive earlier.*
* Compare with:
Il prit le bus, de sorte qu’il est arrivé plus tôt (synonym of et ainsi il – consequence). He caught the bus, so he arrived
earlier.
Condition
à condition que on condition that
à supposer que supposing that
pourvu que provided that
J’accepte n’importe quel travail pourvu qu’il soit bien
rémunéré.
I accept whatever the work provided it is well paid.
Concession
bien que although, though
quoique although, though
Elle veut faire sa marche quotidienne bien qu’il pleuve.
She wants to go on her daily walk although it’s raining.
Restriction
à moins que + redundant ne*
unless
Je veux bien marcher avec vous, à moins qu’il ne pleuve.
I’d like to walk with you, unless it rains.
Fear
de peur que + redundant ne* for
fear that
de crainte que + redundant ne*
for fear that
Ferme ta porte à clé de peur qu’il ne revienne.
Lock the door in case (i.e., for fear that) he returns.
* After this conjunction the verb in the subordinate clause is normally preceded by ne. In this case ne is redundant and
the verb does not have a negative sense.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
300
11.7.4 The subjunctive after impersonal expressions beginning
with il
These express necessity, judgement, sorrow, surprise, doubt, probability and possibility.
il faut que it’s necessary that
il est nécessaire que it’s necessary that
il est bon que it’s good that
il est utile que it’s useful that
il est juste que it’s right that
il est important que it’s important that
il est normal que it’s normal that
il est dommage que it’s a pity that
il est étonnant que it’s surprising that
il est temps que it’s time that
il vaut mieux que it’s better that
il importe que it’s important that
il est douteux que it’s doubtful that
il est peu probable que it’s not likely that
il est improbable que it’s unlikely that
il est possible que it’s possible that
il se peut que it may be that
il n’est pas possible que it’s not possible
that
il est impossible que it’s impossible that
Il faut que vous rendiez la clé au concierge.You must
give back the key to the porter.
Il est juste qu’à travail égal les femmes aient le même
salaire que les hommes. It is right that for the same
work women have the same salary as men.
Il est dommage qu’il soit si susceptible.
It’s a pity that he’s so sensitive.
Il est bon qu’il pleuve de temps en temps. It’s no bad
thing that it rains now and again.
Il vaudrait mieux que nous déménagions au plus vite.
It would be best for us to move (house) as quickly
as possible.
Il est temps qu’ils se mettent en n au travail.
It’s time that they nally get down to work.
Il est possible qu’elle soit membre du parti socialiste.
It’s possible that she’s a member of the socialist
party.
11.7.5 The subjunctive after the superlative and inde nite
antecedents
a superlative or a word preceded by a superlative
le seul only
l’unique only, sole
le premier rst
le dernier last
le meilleur best
Elles sont les seules qui aient réussi* avec tant de facilité.
They are the only ones to have succeeded so easily.
‘indeterminate’: the person or thing on which the subordinate clause depends is
hypothetical or ‘unreal’
personne nobody
quelqu’un somebody
quelque chose something
peu de few, not much / many
rien nothing
Il y a peu de gens qui aient réussi* avec autant de facilité. There
are few people who have succeeded so easily.
Il n’y a personne qui ait eu* autant de problèmes avec sa voiture.
There’s nobody who has had so many problems with his car.
*Note that the indicative may also be used in this construction.
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301
preceded by an inde nite adjective or article
un / une (…) a / an (…)
tout any, all
Je voudrais une étudiante qui puisse résoudre cette équation. I’m
looking for a student who can solve this equation.
Y a-t-il une personne qui soit capable de m’expliquer ce mode
d’emploi ?
Is there anyone who is able to explain these instructions to
me?
11.7.6 The subjunctive in subordinate clauses which appear at the
beginning of a sentence
Que … that, whether Que vous aimiez la bonne cuisine, cela est clair (but Il est clair
que vous aimez la bonne cuisine). lit. That you like good
cooking, that is clear.
que followed by the subjunctive may be placed before the verb in a main clause, as a
replacement for the ‘missing persons’ of the imperative (English let me, let him, etc.).
The imperative in French is in 3 persons
only (see 10.1):
2nd person singular: Entre dans la pièce ! Go
into the room!
1st person plural: Entrons dans la pièce ! Let’s
go into the room!
2nd person plural and polite form: Entrez
dans la pièce ! Go into the room!
The 1st person singular and 3rd persons
singular and plural are therefore ‘missing’
and can be supplied by using this
construction.
Que personne n’entre dans la pièce ! Let no
one enter the room!
Que je sois mille fois puni, si je vous ai menti !
May I be punished a thousand times over if I
have lied to you!
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
302
The subjunctive in context
Le banquier, le philosophe et la crise
B : J’ai bien peur que les orientations actuelles ne soient pas les bonnes. Il faut se
mobiliser pour une politique en faveur de l’économie réelle. Refusons que les banques
s’affaiblissent.
Ph : Ne trouvez-vous pas normal que vous, les responsables de la crise, payiez les
pots cassés ?
B : Je ne peux pas vous laisser dire cela. S’il est vrai que la crise ait été causée par
quelques banques américaines, que trop de prêts immobilers aient été mal gérés, il
est aussi vrai que les banques françaises ont mené une politique de crédit
responsable.
Ph : Je m’étonne que vous disculpiez les banques avec autant de légèreté. Vous êtes
bien le premier qui fassiez de telles affi rmations à l’encontre du bon sens le plus
élémentaire. N’est-il pas temps de voir la realité en face ? Il se peut que vous,
banquiers français, ayiez généré moins de mauvais crédits, soit, je vous l’accorde.
Mais, ne bénéfi ciez-vous pas de taux de refi nancement avantageux de la BCE et des
États ? Et n’est-il pas vrai que vous prétiez à des taux excessifs qui mettent sur la
paille des peuples entiers ? Et n’éprouvez-vous point de honte que tant de maisons
soient saisies par vos soins, que tant d’imprudents qui vous avaient fait confi ance se
trouvent maintenant à la rue ?
B : Il est injuste que les banques soient unanimement attaquées quand elles sont
elles-mêmes fragilisées. Il est nécessaire que nous ayions une économie dynamique
pour que les banques puissent à nouveau prêter, et cette fois plus sainement. Il faut
que les banques soient fortes afi
n que l’économie reparte.
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303
J’ai bien peur que les orientations actuelles ne
soient pas les bonnes
subjunctive after verb of fearing J’ai bien peur
[11.7.1]
Refusons que les banques s’affaiblissent. subjunctive after verb expressing prohibition
Refusons [11.7.1]
Ne trouvez-vous pas normal que vous, les
responsables de la crise, payiez les pots
cassés ?
subjunctive after verbs expressing
judgement Ne trouvez-vous pas normal
[11.7.1]
S’il est vrai que la crise ait été causée … que
trop de prêts immobilers aient été mal gérés
…
subjunctive after impersonal expression of
doubt S’il est vrai que [11.7.4], intention of
the writer unconvinced about crisis
Je m’étonne que vous disculpiez les banques
avec autant de légèreté
subjunctive after verb expressing surprise Je
m’étonne [11.7.1]
Vous êtes bien le premier qui fassiez de telles
af rmations
subjunctive after antecedent le premier
[11.7.5]
Il se peut que vous, banquiers français, ayiez
généré moins de mauvais crédits
subjunctive after impersonal expression Il se
peut que [11.7.4]
Et n’est-il pas vrai que vous prétiez à des taux
excessifs …
subjunctive after negative statement
expressing doubt n’est-il pas vrai [11.7.2]
Et n’éprouvez-vous point de honte que tant de
maisons soient saisies par vos soins … que
tant d’imprudents … se trouvent maintenant
à la rue
subjunctives after verb of feeling (
avoir)
honte que
[11.7.1]
Il est injuste que les banques soient
unanimement attaquées
subjunctive after impersonal expression of
judgement Il est injuste que [11.7.1]
Il est nécessaire que nous ayions une
économie dynamique …
subjunctive after impersonal expression of
necessity Il est necéssaire [11.7.4]
pour que les banques puissent à nouveau
prêter,
subjunctive after conjunction of purpose
pour que [11.7.3]
Il faut que les banques soient fortes … subjunctive after impersonal expression il
faut que [11.7.4]
a n que l’économie reparte. subjunctive after conjunction of purpose
a n que [11.7.3]
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
304
Exercises
1 Fill the gaps with the correct form of the present subjunctive:
in nitive je / j’ tu il / elle nous vous ils / elles
jouer joue jouions jouent
nir nisse nisse nissent
rendre rendes rende rendiez
avoir aies ayons aient
être sois soit soyez
dormir dormes dormiez dorment
recevoir reçoives reçoive receviez
construire construise construisions construisent
écrire écrives écriviez écrivent
aller aille aille aillent
2 Complete the sentences using the present subjunctive:
a Ils ont déménagé à Lyon pour que leur lle (aller) à l’école de
danse.
b Il faut que tu (venir) avec moi à la gendarmerie.
c Je doute que ton frère (comprendre) ce qu’il faut faire.
d Marc est le seul qui n’ (avoir) pas envie de m’accompagner.
e Je veux que vous me (permettre) d’aller voir le match.
f Il insiste que nous (partir) avant minuit.
g Allez-vous-en avant qu’il (être) trop tard !
h Il est dommage que vous ne (pouvoir) pas vivre près de votre
lle.
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305
3 Choose which of the two verbs in bold is correct:
a Il est nécessaire que ton ami vient / vienne sans délai.
b Dites-moi si vous l’avez / ayez vu la semaine dernière.
c Il a l’intention de terminer le travail avant que vous arrivez / arriviez.
d Je crois que le gouvernement va / aille réformer la loi sur l’avortement.
e Faut-il que nous vous racontons / racontions toute l’histoire ?
f Nous avons peur que cela ne / n’est / soit pas vrai.
g Cela m’agace qu’ils ont / aient oublié d’apporter l’argent.
h Cet homme est le plus grand menteur que j’ai / aie jamais connu.
4 Match the correct halves of the following sentences:
1. Il faut a à moins qu’elle ait déjà la solution.
2. Nous devons partir b qu’ils soient là si tôt ?
3. Je pense c avant qu’ils aient eu la possibilité de changer d’avis.
4. Vous attendiez-vous à ce d que tu saches la vérité.
5. Est-ce qu’il a su e que Georges ne soit pas venu.
6. Je vais la chercher f qu’il viendra demain.
7. Je ne sais pas g que nos voisins allaient déménager ?
8. Nous regrettons h où se trouvent mes clés.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
306
5 Three people are waiting for Claude at the airport arrivals gate. Each
one has a different reason to be anxious:
Francine, his girlfriend, had a row with him over the phone and is frightened that he
is going to split up with her.
Agnès, his mother, is annoyed with him because he hasn’t been in touch for 3
weeks.
Georges, his younger brother, is preparing an apology for betting some money
borrowed from Claude on a horse which lost.
Write two sentences order to express their feelings containing subjunctives that
each one says to him / herself (or to each other !) as they wait.
307
12 PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are invariable words which connect parts of a sentence, showing the relation
between them. In English prepositions govern nouns, noun phrases or pronouns.
In ‘After the picnic the children ran to the top of the hill shouting with delight’, the
words after, to, of and with are prepositions. They make prepositional phrases with the
words that follow them.
‘After the picnic’ links the time this happened with the children’s running up the hill.
‘to the top’ links the running with where they went.
‘of the hill’ links ‘top’ with the noun ‘hill’, clarifying exactly where on the hill they went.
‘with delight’ links with ‘shouting’, describing the manner in which they celebrated.
In French, prepositions have the same function as in English but there are some speci c
differences in the way they work.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
308
KEY POINTS
French prepositions may consist of one word:
à (at, to, in), de (of, from, with, in, by), en (in, on, at), sans (without), etc.
or they may be phrases of more than one word:
à côté de (next to), au dessous de (below), près de (near to), etc.
Prepositions may be followed by different elements of the sentence:
a noun: Le capot de la voiture the car bonnet
a pronoun: Je pense à eux. I think of them.
an in nitive: Il lui reste trois pages à écrire. He has three pages left to write.
an adverb of place or time: Il vaut mieux passer par derrière. It’s best to go in
by the back way.
a phrase: C’est pour encourager la recherche contre le sida. It’s to encourage
research into Aids.
Prepositions in French are followed by the element they introduce and in general do not
become detached from it, as often happens in English:
Je ne sais pas de quel garçon tu parles. I don’t know which boy you’re talking
about.
The form of the verb that is used after prepositions is the in nitive. In this respect
French differs from English, where the gerund (a kind of verbal noun consisting of the
in nitive + -ing) is frequently used for this construction:
Il l’a fait sans ré échir. He did it without thinking.
Pour réussir il faudra travailler plus. To succeed it is necessary to work harder.
Avant d’éteindre ton ordinateur commence
par fermer tous tes documents.
Before turning off your computer rst of all
close all your documents.
Exception
The preposition en + the gerund (the form of the French verb ending in -ant) is used for
actions that take place simultaneously (see 10.5):
Il aime regarder la télévision en mangeant. He likes watching the television while
eating.
Il chante toujours en prenant sa douche. He always sings when he’s having a shower.
In many cases a French preposition may be translated by the direct English equivalent,
but with the most frequently-used prepositions the English translation is often
unpredictable:
la n de la leçon the end of the lesson
PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSITIONS
309
but
d’une façon ou d’une autre … in one way or another …
un roman de Jean-Paul Sartre a novel by Jean-Paul Sartre
boire dans un verre to drink from a glass
être dans le train to be on the train
voir un lm à la télévision to watch a lm on the television
It is therefore important to learn the particular uses of prepositions.
12.1 Coordination of prepositions
If two prepositions introduce the same element, that element is not repeated:
Il a tondu la pelouse devant et derrière la
maison.
He cut the lawn in front of and behind the
house.
à, de and en
If à, de or en precede more than one element, they are usually repeated before each one:
Cet été il ira en Italie, en Croatie et en Grèce. This summer he will go to Italy, Croatia and
Greece.
Dans son cours il fait des allusions à la politique,
à la religion et à la sociologie.
In his lecture he refers to politics, religion
and sociology.
Son cours comprend des éléments de politique,
de religion et de sociologie.
His lecture contains elements of politics,
religion and sociology.
Special cases
In the following cases à, de and en are not repeated:
set expressions:
condamné à des dommages et intérêts sentenced to pay damages
L’École nationale des ponts et chaussées [A civil engineering school, literally ‘National
School of Bridges and Roads’]
en son âme et conscience in all honesty
when both elements refer to the same being or object:
Je m’adresse au voisin et ami que vous avez
toujours été.
I’m speaking to you as the neighbour and
friend you have always been.
when the elements are beings or ideas that are closely linked:
L’état des cérisiers, abricotiers et pommiers me
préoccupe.
The state of cherry, apricot and apple trees
worries me.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
310
when the elements are numbers connected by ou:
Il est arrivé avec deux ou trois minutes de retard. He arrived two or three minutes late [lit.
‘with … of delay’].
Other prepositions
All other prepositions can be repeated or not, depending on the speaker.
12.2 Verb + preposition constructions
Certain verbs are followed by a speci c preposition, for example:
jouer à la belote to play belote (a card game)
jouer du piano to play the piano
penser à l’avenir to think about the future
tenir à ses bijoux to prize one’s jewels
se souvenir de son enfance to remember one’s childhood
Many verbs are followed by a preposition and an in nitive. For example, commencer à
(faire) (to begin [to do]), oublier de (faire) (to forget [to do]). (These constructions are
covered fully in 10.2.6.)
12.3 Adjectives and adverbs + prepositions
Certain adjectives and adverbs are followed by a speci c preposition:
bon en good at (academic subject)
content de pleased about / to / with
prêt à ready to
ravi de delighted to
beaucoup de (qqch) much / many, a lot of (+ something)
trop de (qqch) too much / many of (something)
But with an in nitive beaucoup and trop are followed by à:
beaucoup à (faire) much / many, a lot of (+ to do)
trop à (faire) too much / many (to do)
Il est bon en mathématiques mais pas en
chimie.
He’s good at maths but not at chemistry.
Elle est plutôt contente de ses résultats. She’s rather pleased about her results.
Il fait trop de fautes d’orthographe. He makes too many spelling mistakes.
Elle a encore beaucoup à apprendre. She has a lot to learn.
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311
12.4 Differentiating between prepositions and
adverbs
A number of prepositions can also act as adverbs, e.g. après, avant, depuis, derrière,
devant, entre, sans, selon. When these words function as adverbs they do not introduce a
following noun, pronoun or noun phrase. The use of adverbs instead of prepositions
is commonplace in familiar language (see Chapter 6):
Après la réunion je suis allé chez moi. After the meeting I went home (après is a
preposition governing « la réunion »).
Je suis allé chez moi après. I went home afterwards. (après an adverb of
time)
Que penses-tu de la nouvelle réforme ?
Je n’ai rien contre.
What do you think of the new reform? I’ve
nothing against it. (contre acts as an
adverb)
Il a voté contre la réforme. He voted against the reform. (contre acts as a
preposition)
Penses-tu que c’est une bonne idée ? C’est selon ! Do you think it’s a good idea? It all depends!
(selon acts as an adverb)
Selon moi, ils voteront avec les autres partis. In my view [lit. according to me], they will
vote with the other parties. (selon acts as a
preposition)
A number of prepositions are differentiated from adverbs by the addition of de:
autour around (adverb)
autour de around (preposition)
près near (adverb)
près de near (preposition)
en face opposite (adverb)
en face de opposite (preposition)
Magali habite tout près. Magali lives quite near.
Magali habite près de sa famille. Magali lives quite near her family.
12.5 Prepositions and their uses
Certain common prepositions, especially à, de, dans, en and par, have a variety of
equivalents in English and are best learnt in the context in which they are used. For
example, the equivalent of dans is ‘in’ but the idea of ‘in’ can be translated by other
prepositions according to the context.
dans
In the sense of ‘living in a street’ dans is used:
Mes parents habitent dans* la rue Molière. My parents live in Molière Street.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
312
à
In the sense of ‘(out) in the street’ à is used:
Depuis qu’il est au chômage, il se retrouve
à la rue.
Since he lost his job he’s on the streets.
en plein
In the sense of ‘in the middle of’ en plein is used:
Ils se sont disputés en pleine rue. They had an argument in (the middle of) the
street.
* It is also possible to express this idea without a preposition at all: Mes parents habitent
rue Molière.
The list of the most common prepositions which follows gives a range of equivalents and
exempli es their use.
12.5.1 à
Reminder (see 2.3):
à + le = au
à + les = aux
à is used to express:
place, location: at, in, on
à la dernière minute at the last minute
au commissariat at the police station
Ils attendent à la gare. They are waiting at the station.
Elle vit à Londres. She lives in London.
au palais royal in / at the royal palace
à la télévision on television
au volant pas de portable no mobiles at the wheel
destination: to
Nous allons à Vienne. We are going to Vienna.
Pour l’église vous tournez à gauche. You turn left for the church.
location and destination with masculine countries, e.g. le Canada, les États-Unis, le Japon,
le Portugal: in, to, into
Aux États-Unis l’espagnol est la première langue
étrangère.
In the United States Spanish is the rst
foreign language.
L’année dernière il est allé au Portugal. Last year he went to Portugal.
PREPOSITIONS
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313
a moment in time: at, in, on, until
au début at the beginning
à trois heures at 3 o’clock
au nal in the end
au 19e siècle in the 19th century
à la fois at the same time
à la mort de mon oncle at / on my uncle’s death
à
son arrivée à la maison on his arrival at the house
du matin au soir from morning until night
manner, means or method: in, on, by, with
à voix basse in a low voice
à pied on foot
à cheval on horseback
à bicyclette by bicycle
cuisiner au beurre to cook with butter
des pâtes aux champignons et à la crème pasta with mushrooms and cream
mariage à l’italienne marriage Italian-style
noun complements
In the English equivalent the complement is frequently turned into an adjective and
placed before the noun:
un croissant au beurre a butter croissant
peinture à l’huile oil painting
un sandwich au saucisson a sausage sandwich
une tarte aux pommes an apple tart
du beurre à l’ail garlic butter
prices: at
des tomates à 3 euros le kilo tomatoes at 3 euros a kilo
des interrupteurs à 5 euros pièce switches at 5 euros each
distance and speed:
Le pont est à dix kilomètres. The bridge is ten kilometres away.
La nouvelle Peugeot roule à 140 kilomètres à
l’heure.
The new Peugeot travels at 140 kilometres an
hour.
possession:
C’est à moi, ce ballon ! That ball is mine [lit: to me]!
Ce livre est à Daniel. This book belongs to Daniel.
une façon bien à
lui d’écrire a way of writing that is all his own
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
314
Notes
à is used:
in prepositional expressions e.g. aux mains de (in the hands of), à l’exception de (except),
à partir de (from):
Nous sommes aux mains des politiques et des
banquiers.
We are in the hands of politicians and
bankers.
Ils étaient tous là, à l’exception de Georges. They were all there except George.
Le restaurant sera fermé à partir de demain. The restaurant will be closed from
tomorrow.
to describe features:
la lle aux cheveux noirs the girl with black hair
l’homme à la barbe blanche the man with the white beard
une tasse à thé a tea cup
un moulin à vent a windmill
une cuiller à café a tea / coffee spoon
in certain verb constructions (see 10.2.6):
Il pense à ses amis. He thinks of his friends.
with pronouns
à plusieurs several (people) together
Ils ont fait ce travail à plusieurs. Several of them did the work together.
À moi
! Help!
12.5.2 à cause de: because of
Ils ont annulé la fête à cause de la pluie. They’ve cancelled the festival because of the
rain.
12.5.3 à côté de: beside, next to
Tu ne peux pas le rater, c’est à côté de la
boulangerie.
You can’t miss it, it’s next to the baker’s.
12.5.4 a n de: so as to
Elle a pris un taxi a n de ne pas être en retard. She took a taxi so as not to be late.
12.5.5 à l’exception de: except for
Ils sont tous venus à l’exception de Marie, qui
est malade.
They’ve all come except for Marie, who is ill.
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315
12.5.6 à moins de: unless
À moins de partir tout de suite nous allons rater
le train.
Unless we leave straight away we’ll miss the
train.
12.5.7 à partir de: from
à partir de mercredi prochain from next Wednesday
12.5.8 après: after
après la révolution after the revolution
Après le petit déjeuner nous sommes
partis pour Paris.
After breakfast we left for Paris.
12.5.9 à travers: across, through
Ils ont réussi à passer à travers les mailles du
let.
They managed to slip through the net.
12.5.10 au delà de: beyond
Au delà d’une certaine limite les billets ne sont
plus valables.
Beyond a certain point tickets are not valid
any more.
De cet endroit, on pouvait voir au-delà de la
frontière.
From this place we could see beyond the
border.
12.5.11 au dessous de: below
au-dessous de la fenêtre below the window
Au-dessous d’un certain âge les enfants
peuvent entrer gratuitement.
Under a certain age children can go in free of
charge.
12.5.12 au-dessus de: over, above
J’aime quand en avion je me trouve au-dessus
des nuages.
I like it when I’m up above the clouds in a
plane.
Le drapeau tricolore ottait au-dessus du
porche de la mairie.
The tricolour oated above the porch of the
town hall.
12.5.13 au lieu de: instead of
Pourquoi tu n’irais pas, au lieu de moi ? Why wouldn’t you go instead of me?
Nous avons préféré faire une marche au lieu
d’aller nous enfermer au cinéma.
We preferred to go for a walk instead of
being shut in the cinema.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
316
12.5.14 auprès de: beside, with
La politique du Président n’a pas eu beaucoup
de succès auprès des électeurs.
The President’s policy hasn’t been very
successful with the electorate.
12.5.15 autour de: around
Je regardais autour de moi avec précaution. I looked around me carefully.
Soudain, autour de lui il n’y avait que
des gens ivres.
Suddenly, there were only drunken people
around him.
12.5.16 avant: before
avant la guerre before the war
avant le départ before leaving
Note
When an in nitive follows avant, de is always placed before the in nitive:
avant de commencer before starting
12.5.17 avec: with
lIs sont venus avec leurs enfants. They came with their children.
Avec ceci ? (in shops) Anything else? [lit: With this?]
Note
avec often translates by the -ly form of adverbs:
avec curiosité inquisitively
Il a fait ses devoirs avec soin. He did his homework carefully.
12.5.18 chez: at the place / house / home of, with
Chez is used both literally and guratively:
Je vais chez mon amie. I’m going to my girlfriend’s place.
Fais comme chez toi ! Make yourself at home.
La critique de la société est courante chez
Molière.
Social criticism is common in Molière.
Comment ça va chez
les Martin ? How are things with the Martins?
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317
12.5.19 contre: against
Le match le plus dur, c’est l’Angleterre
contre la France.
The hardest match is England against France.
12.5.20 dans
dans is used to express:
place: in, on
Nous prenons le petit déjeuner dans la cuisine. We have our breakfast in the kitchen.
Mon passeport est dans le tiroir. My passport is in the drawer.
dans l’avion on the plane
movement to a place: into
J’ai mis les billets dans une enveloppe scellée. I put the tickets into a sealed envelope.
Elle a glissé la lettre dans la poche de son jean. She slipped the letter into the pocket of her
jeans.
Nous allons pénétrer dans la forêt. We are going to go deep into the forest.
from, out of
Il prend l’argent dans un tiroir. He takes the money from a drawer.
Je l’ai appris dans un livre. I learnt it from a book.
Pas tous les peuples mangent dans des assiettes
et boivent dans des verres.
Not all peoples eat from plates and drink out
of glasses.
time:
in, during
Dans les années 1970 … In / During the seventies …
J’ai voyagé beaucoup dans ma jeunesse. I travelled a lot in my youth.
after a period of time has gone by: in
Je commence mon nouvel emploi dans une
semaine.
I begin my new job in a week’s time.
12.5.21 d’après: according to, based on
D’après mes recherches … According to my research …
D’après lui … According to him …
Ce lm a été fait d’après un roman de Dalton
Trumbo.
This lm was made based on a novel by
Dalton Trumbo.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
318
12.5.22 de
Reminder (see 2.3):
de + le = du; de+ les = des
de is used:
for origin, provenance, distance: from
Il vient de Norvège. He comes from Norway.
Elle habite à quelques kilomètres de là. She lives a few kilometres from there.
Il part de la mairie tous les jours à 5 heures. He departs from the town hall every day at 5
o’clock.
de temps à autre from time to time
de la tête aux pieds from head to foot
for possession: of, possessive ’s or s’
le roi d’Espagne the King of Spain
le bateau de mon père my father’s boat
les contrats des ouvriers the workers’ contracts
for a noun complement: of
Note that in the English equivalent the complement is frequently placed before the noun:
une tasse de thé a cup of tea
l’année de naissance the year of birth
un bol de café a bowl of coffee
le bureau de poste the post of ce
le mal de mer sea sickness
une ligne de chemin de fer a railway line
du fromage de brebis ewe’s cheese
le café du village the village café
for an agent: by, with, of
un roman d’Albert Camus a novel by Albert Camus
Il m’a salué de la main. He waved to me [lit: He greeted me with the
hand].
mourir de froid to die of cold
un exercice rempli de fautes an exercise full of mistakes
PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSITIONS
319
as the complement of a past participle or adjective: with, of, in, by
Le béton est composé d’eau, de sable et de
ciment.
Concrete is made of water, sand and cement.
Il est er de ses élèves. He is proud of his pupils.
une montagne couverte de neige a mountain covered with snow
Elle était accompagnée de deux amis. She was accompanied by two friends.
Elle était vêtue d’un pantalon noir. She was wearing black trousers [lit. dressed
with].
after quanti ers
trop de problèmes too many problems
beaucoup d’amis lots of friends
un seau plein d’eau a bucket full of water
in expressions of manner: with, in
de la même manière in the same way
de toute façon in any case
d’une certaine manière in a way
d’un air triste with a sad face
after superlatives: in
la montagne la plus haute d’Europe the highest mountain in Europe
Elle est la plus habile gymnaste de son club. She’s the most skilful gymnast in her club.
after quelqu’un, quelque chose, rien:
quelque chose d’intéressant something interesting
quelqu’un d’autre someone else
rien de neuf nothing new
Notes
de is omitted:
in old expressions such as: l’hôtel-Dieu (ancient hospital in Paris), fête-Dieu (Corpus
Christi), and also in some modern expressions such as: le gouvernement Jospin (the
government of Prime Minister Jospin).
It is important not to confuse the preposition de with the partitive article de (see
2.5.1):
– Tu veux chercher du pain ? ‘Will you get some bread?’ (partitive article)
– De la boulangerie du
village ou du
supermarché ?
‘From the baker in the village or from the
supermarket?’ (preposition)
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
320
de is used in certain verb constructions, e.g. se souvenir de (see 10.2.6):
Je me souviens de la visite du Président. I remember the President’s visit.
12.5.23 de façon à: in order to, in such a way as to
Il utilise le véri cateur d’orthographe de façon à
ne pas faire de fautes.
He uses the spell-check so as not to make
mistakes.
12.5.24 de manière à: in order to, in such a way as to
Il t un discours léni ant de manière à apaiser
le publique.
He made a soothing speech so as to placate
the audience.
Note de manière à and de façon à have the same meaning.
12.5.25 depuis: for, since
Depuis hier c’est un homme nouveau. Since yesterday he’s (been) a new man.
depuis meaning ‘for’ is used of a period of time which has not yet nished (see also
12.5.46 and 12.5.47).
C’est une vraie folie depuis quinze jours. Everything has gone crazy for two weeks.
[and it hasn’t stopped]
Je travaille sur le problème depuis une vingtaine
d’années.
I’ve been working on the problem for twenty-
odd years. [and I’m still working on it]
12.5.26 derrière: behind
Il y avait un beau jardin derrière la maison. There was a beautiful garden behind the
house.
12.5.27 dès: from
Dès demain les conditions météo sont plus
favorables.
From tomorrow weather conditions are
more favourable.
12.5.28 devant: in front of
Il se trouvait devant l’entrée du parc. He was in front of the park entrance.
Je me suis arrêté devant le stade. I stopped in front of the stadium.
PREPOSITIONS
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321
12.5.29 en
en is used for:
location: in
Nous vivons en Avignon. We live in Avignon.
destination: to, into
On va en ville demain ? Shall we go to town tomorrow?
location and destination with feminine countries: in, to, into
Nous avons beaucoup voyagé en France. We’ve travelled a lot in France.
Elle va en Allemagne pour deux ou trois jours. She’s going to Germany for two or three
days.
transformation: to, into
traduire en français to translate into French
changer des livres en euros to change pounds into euros
time: in
en janvier, en février, etc. in January, in February etc.
en semaine during the week
en ce moment at the moment
en (l’an) 2016 in 2016
en été, en automne, en hiver in summer, in autumn, in winter
but
au printemps in spring
transport: by
aller en voiture, avion, train to go by car, plane, train
materials: ‘made of’
une chaise en bois a wooden chair
une casserole en aluminium an aluminium saucepan
des murs en pisé adobe walls
Notes
en is used in many common expressions without being followed by a de nite or
inde nite article:
en même temps at the same time
en théorie / pratique in theory / practice
être en colère to be angry
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
322
en plein air in the open air
en tout cas in any case
en quelques minutes in a few minutes
en followed by the gerund means while, as, on, by (see 10.5.1):
En sortant du magasin je suis allé directement au
collège.
On leaving the shop I went straight to school.
En voulant trop plaire il s’est rendu ridicule. He looked ridiculous when he tried too hard
to please.
12.5.30 en deçà de: on this side of
En deçà de 70 dollars le baril, le pétrole ne
serait plus rentable.
This side of 70 dollars a barrel, crude oil will
not be pro table.
« Vérité en deçà des Pyrénées, erreur au-delà. »
(Pascal, Pensées).
‘What is right in one place can be wrong in
another place’.
12.5.31 en dehors de: outside
Nous avons passé une semaine en dehors du
pays.
We’ve spent a week out of the country.
Note
En dehors de and hors de have the same meaning.
12.5.32 en dépit de: despite, in spite of
en dépit de tout in spite of everything
Il agit en dépit du bon sens. He acts contrary to common sense.
Note
En dépit de and malgré have the same meaning.
12.5.33 en face de: opposite
Il s’était assis en face de moi. He was sitting opposite me.
12.5.34 en plus de: on top of
Ce mois j’ai reçu 1000 euros en plus de mon
salaire.
This month I’ve received 1000 euros on top
of my salary.
PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSITIONS
323
12.5.35 entre: between
Ils s’aident entre eux. They help each other.
Il va arriver entre trois heures et quatre heures
et demie.
He’ll get here between 3 o’clock and 4.30.
12.5.36 envers: towards
Elle est respectueuse envers l’autorité. She’s respectful towards authority.
Elle montre peu de respect envers ses parents. She shows scant respect for her parents.
Il est tellement exigeant envers lui-même. He puts such demands on himself.
12.5.37 grâce à: thanks to
Grâce à ton aide j’ai réussi à trouver un emploi. Thanks to you, I’ve succeeded in nding a job.
Grâce à Dieu. Thanks be to God.
12.5.38 hors de: out of
Nous avons passé une semaine hors du pays. We’ve spent a week out of the country.
Elle a passé tout le weekend hors de chez elle. She spent the whole weekend away from
home.
Il était hors d’haleine sur la ligne d’arrivée. He was out of breath on the nishing line.
12.5.39 jusqu’à: until, (up) to, as far as
Jusqu’à is used of time and place:
jusqu’à lundi / hier until Monday / yesterday
Ils ont marché jusqu’au bord du lac. They walked (up) to the side of the lake.
12.5.40 loin de: far from
Je veux m’échapper et m’installer loin d’ici. I want to break away and settle far from here.
Ils sont loin d’avoir signé le contrat. They are a long way from signing the
contract.
Loin des yeux, loin du cœur. Out of sight, out of mind.
12.5.41 lors de: at the time of
Lors de son voyage il s’est fait de nouveaux
amis.
At the time of / During his journey he met
some new friends.
Lors du dépouillement du scrutin il a constaté
quelques irrégularités.
When the votes were being counted he
noted some irregularities.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
324
12.5.42 malgré: in spite of, despite
malgré tout in spite of everything
Je peux t’entendre sans dif culté, malgré le
bruit.
I can hear you without dif culty, despite the
noise.
C’est un homme plein d’humour malgré les
apparences.
He is a witty man in spite of appearances.
Note
Malgré and en dépit de have the same meaning.
12.5.43 par
par is used to express:
means: by, via
Le colis fut envoyé par la poste. The parcel was sent by post.
payer par carte de crédit to pay by credit card
J’ai reçu les DVDs par mon frère. I got the DVDs via my brother.
Les achats par smartphone représentent 20%
des billets vendus.
Smartphone purchases make up 20% of
tickets sold.
the agent after the passive voice: by
La vitre a été cassée par le ballon. The window was broken by the ball.
L’équipe du Brésil a été battue par l’Argentine. The Brazilian team was beaten by the
Argentinian one.
Son discours a été couvert par les cris. His speech was drowned out by the shouting.
movement through: out of, by, through, via
Nous allons par ici ou par là ? Do we go this way or that way?
Regardez par la fenêtre ! Look out of the window!
Elle est entrée
par derrière. She came in through the back.
Par la porte je voyais un pommier
euri. Through the door I could see an apple tree in
blossom.
Je suis passé par Toulouse. I went via Toulouse.
être toujours
par monts et par vaux to be always on the move
distribution in time or space: per, through
Je suis venu deux fois par semaine. I came twice a week.
Elle gagne 2000 euros par mois. She earns 2,000 euros per month.
Les Français achètent en moyenne deux kilos
d’huîtres par an et par habitant.
The French buy on average two kilos of
oysters per year per inhabitant.
Ils furent répartis par groupes de trois. They were divided up in groups of three.
PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSITIONS
325
a moment or period of time: during, on
par temps de guerre in wartime
par une belle matinée de printemps on a beautiful spring morning
a cause: out of, from
Il a agi par devoir. He acted out of duty.
Nous sommes venu(e)s par curiosité. We came out of curiosity.
L’incident s’est produit par sa faute. It was his fault that the incident happened.
‘by’ after the verbs commencer and nir:
Il a ni par m’énerver. He ended up by getting on my nerves.
Par où vais-je commencer ? Where shall I start?
12.5.44 parmi: among
Parmi les personnalités se trouvait Miss France. Among the personalities was Miss France.
12.4.45 par rapport à: compared with, with regard to
La valeur de la livre a augmenté par rapport à
celle de l’euro.
The value of the pound has increased against
(‘compared with’) the euro.
L’attitude des gens par rapport à l’immigration
est ambiguë.
The attitude of people with regard to
immigration is ambiguous.
12.5.46 pendant: during, for
Pendant is normally used to refer to events that took place within a speci c period of time
(see also 12.5.23 and 12.5.47):
J’ai suivi un régime pendant deux années. I followed a diet for two years.
Nous avons attendu pendant des heures mais
personne n’est venu.
We waited for hours but nobody came.
Il devra prendre de l’aspirine pendant tout le
mois de juillet.
He’ll have to take aspirin for the whole of
July.
Note
durant has the same meaning as pendant.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
326
12.5.47 pour
pour is used to express:
aim: for, in order to
Il a pris le métro pour gagner du temps. He took the undergound to gain time.
Faire un régime, ce n’est pas pour moi. Going on a diet isn’t for me.
Je n’ai pas de pitié pour ces gens-là. I’ve no pity for those people.
cause: for
On l’a récompensé pour avoir sauvé l’entreprise. He was rewarded for having saved the
business.
Pour avoir lu toute la journée, il a maintenant les
yeux fatigués.
His eyes are tired now because he’s been
reading all day.
referring to a future period of time: for (see also 12.5.23 and 12.5.46)
Ils vont à Marseilles pour quelques jours. They’re going to Marseilles for a few days.
Qu’est-ce que tu fais pour les vacances de Noël ? What are you doing for the Christmas
holidays?
passer / prendre pour = to be taken for:
Elle le prend pour ce qu’il n’est pas. She takes him for what he is not.
Il passe pour un expert. He’s supposed to be an expert.
12.5.48 près de: near (to)
Elle s’assit près de lui. She sat down near to him.
La cathédrale est près du château, à deux
kilomètres.
The cathedral is near the castle, two
kilometres away.
12.5.49 quant à: as for, regarding
Quant aux risques de malaria en France, je
pense que c’est exagéré.
As for the risks of catching malaria in France,
I think this is exaggerated.
L’expert, quant à lui, préfère réserver son
diagnostic.
As for the expert, he prefers to reserve his
diagnosis.
12.5.50 sans: without
Je bois du café sans sucre. I drink coffee without sugar.
Elle est sans souci. She has no worries.
PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSITIONS
327
12.5.51 sauf: except (for)
Pas de soleil aujourd’hui sauf sur le littoral
méditerranéan.
No sun today except on the Mediterranean
coast.
12.5.52 selon: according to
Selon vous, qui a été le meilleur candidat ? According to you, who was the best
candidate?
Son jugement varie selon son humeur. His judgement varies according to his mood.
12.5.53 sous: under
Je vais m’abriter de la pluie sous les arbres. I’m going to shelter from the rain under the
trees.
12.5.54 sur: on, in, out of
sur is the equivalent of:
on
un spectacle sur glace a show on ice
Il fait toujours un beau sourire sur les photos. He always has a nice smile on photos.
Tu rêves ! Descends un peu sur Terre ! You’re dreaming! Come down to earth a
little!
in
Elle avait laissé la clé sur la porte. She’d left the key in the door.
Il est sur une affaire douteuse. He is in a dubious business deal.
out of
quatorze sur vingt fourteen out of twenty
Neuf personnes sur dix possèdent un portable. Nine out of ten people possess a mobile.
12.5.55 sur le point de: about to, on the point of
J’étais sur le point de t’appeler quand tu es
arrivé.
I was about to call you when you arrived.
Il est malheureusement sur le point de faire
faillite.
Unfortunately, he is about to go bankrupt.
12.5.56 vers: towards, about
Il se tourna vers moi en souriant. He turned towards me, smiling.
Ils sont revenus vers 6 heures du soir. They returned at about six in the evening.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
328
12.6 Prepositions meaning ‘in’ and ‘to’ before
geographical names
Preposition Before … examples
en the names of countries, regions,
states and provinces in the feminine
en Grande Bretagne in Great Britain
en France in France
en Bourgogne in Burgundy
Je vais en Grande Bretagne. I’m going
to Great Britain.
all names of countries, whether
masculine or feminine, which begin
with a vowel or silent h
en Afghanistan in Afghanistan
en Ouzbekistan in Uzbekistan
en Haïti in Haiti
Je vais en Haïti (or à Haïti). I’m going
to Haiti.
names of continents en Europe in Europe
en Afrique in Africa
au names of countries in the masculine au Brésil in Brazil
Je vis au Maroc. I live in Morocco.
Je vais au Maroc. I’m going to
Morocco.
à,
à la / au
towns, small islands, large islands far
from Europe
à Londres in London
à Chypre in Cyprus
à Madagascar in Madagascar
à la Martinique in Martinique
Je vais à Londres, Chypre, etc. I’m
going to London, Cyprus, etc.
aux the names of countries in the plural aux États-Unis in the United States
Je vais aux États-Unis. I’m going to
the USA.
dans le / la /
l’ / les
the names of masculine regions
the names of certain islands and
archipelagos
all British counties
the names of mountain ranges
dans le Yorkshire in Yorkshire
dans le Berry in the Berry (region of
France)
dans les Caraïbes in the Caribbean
dans les Alpes in the Alps
Je vais dans les Alpes / le Berry / le
Yorkshire, etc. I’m going to the Alps,
the Berry region, Yorkshire, etc.
Note
Islands considered as a country follow the rule for countries: en Irlande (in Ireland), en
Australie (in Australia).
PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSITIONS
329
Prepositions in context
La drôle de cigarette
Nous étions dans les Alpes, à Saint Véran, le village le plus haut de France. Mon ami
Georges était là qui fumait. Il fume depuis toujours, malgré les reproches de son
entourage. À moins d’un miracle, il n’arrêtera pas.
Or, dimanche vers 11 heures du matin, alors que j’étais sur le point de l’appeler
pour l’inviter à déjeuner, il arriva en me souffl ant une bouffée de fumée blanche
comme neige en plein visage.
Surpris, je lui demandai d’aller fumer en dehors de la maison ou sur le balcon. Pour
avoir fréquenté Georges durant des années, je savais que cette attitude ne lui
ressemblait pas.
En fait, j’étais loin de me douter de la surprise qui m’attendait. Ce qu’il tenait sur
les lèvres était bien une cigarette, en tout cas cela en avait la forme, et le bout
rougissait à chaque fois que Georges tirait sur celle-ci. Cependant la cigarette brûlait
sans se consumer.
Georges expliqua qu’il s’agissait d’une cigarette électronique. Cette cigarette
révolutionnaire, inventée par un Japonais au début des années 2000, venait de
faire son apparition en France. Georges était tout fi er d’être parmi les premiers à
l’expérimenter.
Pour l’occasion on a créé un nouveau verbe : « vapoter ».
Cette nouvelle cigarette n’est pas bourrée de chimie mais d’électronique. Elle
contient aussi une cartouche aromatisée avec recharge et bouchon de protection. En
aspirant, le microprocesseur met en marche une batterie. Celle-ci chauffe et
transforme le liquide en vapeur d’eau à une température de 50 à 60 degrés C.
Le fumeur a l’impression de fumer sans vraiment fumer. Reste à savoir si les
produits dans la recharge sont inoffensifs !
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
330
Preposition Comment
à
1 à Saint Véran
2 pour l’inviter à déjeuner
3 parmi les premiers à
l’expérimenter
4 à une température de 50
à 60 degrés C
5 Reste à savoir.
in Saint Véran
to invite him to have lunch
among the rst to try it out
at a temperature from 50 to
60 degrees Celsius
It remains to be seen.
[12.5.1]
à normally = ‘in’ of towns
[12.6]
inviter is followed by à
premier followed by à = the
rst to (do)
à = at, to
idiom
à moins de
à moins d’un miracle short of a miracle / unless
there’s a miracle
[12.5.6]
au début de
au début des années 2000 at the beginning of the
twenty- rst century
avec
avec recharge rechargeable
[12.5.17]
dans
dans les Alpes in the Alps
[12.5.20] [12.6]
de
1 le village le plus haut de
France
2 vers 11 heures du matin
3 une bouffée de fumée
blanche
4 j’étais loin de me douter de
la surprise
5 s’agissait d’une
6 venait de faire son
apparition en France
the highest village in France
towards 11 in the morning /
am
a puff of white smoke
I was far from suspecting
the surprise that awaited me
it was (a matter of)
had just appeared in France
[12.5.22]
de after a superlative = ‘in’
for times of day and
following clock time de = in
noun complement
douter de = to doubt
il s’agit de impersonal verb
venir de = to have just. Note
imperfect tense in French =
pluperfect in English
PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSITIONS
331
Preposition Comment
7 (pas) bourrée de chimie
mais d’électronique
(not) crammed with
chemistry but with
electronics
de = with
depuis
Il fume depuis toujours. He has always smoked.
[12.5.23]
depuis with present tense
in French = past tense in
English
durant
durant des années for years
[12.5.46]
durant (and pendant) refer
to events that take place
within a speci c period of
time
en
1 en me souf
ant
2 en plein visage
3 en
tout cas
4 le microprocesseur met en
marche la batterie
5 transforme le liquide en
vapeur d’eau
while blowing at me
right in my face
in any case
the microprocessor
switches the battery on
turns the liquid into water
vapour
[12.5.29]
en + gerund construction =
while
idiom
idiom
mettre en marche = to turn /
switch on
transformer en = to turn
into
en dehors de
en dehors de la maison outside the house
[12.5.31]
loin de
j’étais loin de me douter de la
surprise
I was far from suspecting
the surprise
[12.5.40]
malgré
malgré les reproches de son
entourage
despite the criticism of
those around him
[12.5.42]
par
inventée par un Japonais invented by a Japanese man
[12.5.43]
with agent after past
participle
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
332
Preposition Comment
parmi
parmi les premiers à
l’expérimenter
among the rst to try it out
[12.5.44]
pour
pour l’inviter à déjeuner (in order) to invite him to
lunch
[12.5.47]
pour + in nitive expressing
aim
sans
La cigarette brûlait sans se
consumer
the cigarette burned
without being used up
[12.5.50]
sans + in
nitive (present
participle in English)
sur
sur le balcon on the balcony
[12.5.54]
sur le point de
que j’étais sur le point de
l’appeler
I was about to call him
[12.5.55]
vers
vers 11 heures du matin towards 11 am
[12.5.56]
PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSITIONS
333
Exercises
1 Fill the gaps with a suitable preposition:
1. Robert a perdu ses clés; elles ne sont ni ses poches ni
son sac -dos.
2. Ré échissons ! dit Robert, je suis sorti moi
quatre heures l’après-midi.
3. Les clés ne se trouvant pas la porte, je les avais donc
moi mon départ.
4. Puis, je suis allé voiture Cambridge,
mon ami Christian.
5. Je suis entré la maison. le hall, j’ai accroché ma veste
porte-manteau.
6. Je suis allé salon en passant la salle
manger.
7. J’ai joué un moment Jeremy, le ls Christian.
8. Jeremy a voulu jouer cheval; je me suis mis quatre
pattes et il est monté mon dos.
9. J’ai tourné trois fois du canapé.
10. Mais bien sûr ! Les clés sont tombées terre. Elles sont certainement
restées le canapé.
2 Fill the gaps with one of the following: à, à l’ / à la or chez :
1. Il va (le dentiste)
2. Ils travaillent (Renault)
3. Elle est (université)
4. Il est (le doyen de l’université)
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
334
5. Elle est (église)
6. Il est (l’imam)
7. Il a rendez-vous (poste)
8. Vous travaillez (Carrefour) ?
9. Elle est (discothèque)
10. Elle vient de (la coiffeuse)
3 Fill the gaps with either parmi or entre:
1. Plusieurs véhicules se sont percutés sur l’autoroute Cavaillon et
Avignon, faisant au moins 2 morts et 6 blessés les passagers.
2. les blessés se trouve mon ancien professeur de lettres.
3. Au début de mes études, j’avais eu à choisir lui et le professeur Vial.
4. Maintenant le voici la vie et la mort et je dois avertir un membre de
sa famille.
5. les gens à appeler, je ne vois guère que sa lle et sa femme.
6. Je crois me souvenir qu’ / que la mère et la lle les relations s’étaient
tendues.
7. Pendant un temps la lle a guré une liste d’amis proches que
j’invitais régulièrement.
8. Puis, pris vie familiale et vie professionnelle, j’ai dû m’éloigner de mes
amis.
9. Un exemple tant d’autres des erreurs que tant de gens commettent
sans s’en rendre compte.
10. Bon, comment vais-je retrouver son numéro de téléphone tous ces
bouts de papiers ?
PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSITIONS
335
4 Names of places. Fill the gaps with a suitable preposition:
1. J’habite Montpellier France.
2. Je viens Chicago Etats-Unis.
3. Elle est née Sao Paolo Brésil.
4. Il est Syracuse Sicile.
5. Il travaille (le) Caire Egypte.
6. Elle va La Valette Malte.
7. Nous resterons Liverpool Angleterre.
8. Elles passent leurs vacances Canterbury Kent.
9. Depuis quand n’êtes-vous pas allés Genève Suisse ?
10. Nous irons Clermont-Ferrand Massif Central.
5 Taking note of the word in the rst box (être, aller, etc.) place each word
in the box beneath the appropriate preposition:
1. Paris – la rue – le dentiste – avance – le trottoir
à dans chez en sur
être
2. Normandie – pied – le sud – mon oncle – sa chambre
à dans chez en vers
aller
3. la semaine prochaine – le déjeuner – 2 et 3 heures – récupérer les enfants – jeudi
après-midi
à compter
de
à
l’exception
du
entre après avant de
Quand ?
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
336
4. un avare– Marseille – sixième – l’aspirateur – choses sérieuses
pour en aux par
passer
5. l’apprendre – s’excuser – loin – grec – son chef
à du après pour de
venir
337
13 CONJUNCTIONS
The word ‘conjunction’ means ‘joining together’. Typical conjunctions are ‘and’, ‘but’
and ‘because’, and they have the function of connecting two words, phrases, clauses or
sentences.
Conjunctions have an important role in communicating meaning. When they connect
words, phrases or clauses, conjunctions create sentences of greater complexity. For
example, a conjunction can be used to join the two statements ‘He complained bitterly’
and ‘No one took any notice’, turning them into a single, more complex one. Linking the
sentences with the conjunction ‘but’ gives one meaning: ‘He complained bitterly but no
one took any notice’; connecting them with ‘because’ gives a quite different one: ‘He
complained bitterly because no one took any notice’.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
338
KEY POINTS
French conjunctions work in a similar way to English ones. There are two types,
coordinating and subordinating.
Coordinating conjunctions, such as et (and), ou (or) and mais (but), are so-called
because they make a simple link between two equivalent words or clauses; there is no
relation of dependency between the two components that are linked:
Jean et Magalie se sont mariés. Jean and Magalie got married.
C’est maintenant ou jamais. It’s now or never.
J’essaie de faire un peu de sport mais, hélas,
je n’ai pas vraiment le temps.
I try to play a little sport but unfortunately I
don’t really have the time.
Subordinating conjunctions, such as comme (as), parce que (because), and quand
(when), introduce a subordinate clause which is dependent on (i.e., ‘subordinate to’) a
main clause.
Main clause Subordinate clause introduced by a
conjunction
Il ne parlait pas beaucoup
He didn’t speak much
parce qu’il préférait écouter.
because he preferred to listen.
J’irai les voir
I’ll go and see them
quand j’aurai terminé mon travail.
when I’ve nished my work.
Fais
Do
comme il te plaît.
as you like.
13.1 Coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are few in number but they are among the most used words
in the language. The principal coordinating conjunctions are:
car for, since, because
donc so
et and
mais but
or so, now, and yet
ou or
ni neither, nor, or
puis then, next
Note
et, ou and ni can join words (including pronouns), phrases, clauses and sentences. The
remaining coordinating conjunctions join two phrases, clauses and sentences, but not
two words.
CONJUNCTIONS
CONJUNCTIONS
339
13.1.1 car
Car is used to link two clauses, and does not normally appear at the beginning of a
sentence. It is used mostly in written French and has an explanatory sense:
Son frère est revenu, car elle l’a vu. His brother has returned, since she’s seen
him.
Elle va échouer l’examen, car elle n’a pas fait
assez de travail.
She’ll fail the exam because she’s not done
enough work.
Il prend toujours ses congés en juillet car il tient
à voir le Tour de France.
He always takes his holidays in July for he’s
keen to see the Tour de France.
Il est devenu un vrai expert en cinéma car il a lu
de nombreux livres sur le sujet.
He’s become a real expert on cinema because
he’s read lots of books about it.
13.1.2 donc
Donc has the function of linking two clauses or sentences, indicating a result. This
conjunction is used typically in logical syllogisms, as in Descartes’ famous statement « Je
pense, donc je suis » (I think, therefore I am). The placing of donc is variable; it may be
situated at the beginning of the clause or after the verb:
Je suis venu ici pour me détendre, donc je ne
veux pas d’ordinateur.
I’ve come here to relax, so I don’t want a
computer.
Nous n’avons pas de nancement pour le projet.
Il s’agit donc d’en trouver.
We haven’t enough nance for the project.
So it’s a question of nding it.
13.1.3 et
Et can be placed between words, phrases and clauses and at the beginning of a
sentence:
une photo en noir et blanc a black and white photo
Nous avons pris la clé et nous sommes montés
au sixième par l’ascenseur.
We took the key and we went up to the
sixth oor in the lift.
Et toi ? Qu’est-ce que tu en penses
? And you? What do you think about it?
both ... and may be expressed by et ... et:
Et mon père et ma mère sont algériens. Both my father and my mother are Algerian.
13.1.4 mais
Mais expresses a contrast or a limitation and may be placed at the beginning of a
sentence:
Elle s’est couchée de bonne heure mais elle ne
dormait pas.
She went to bed early but she couldn’t sleep.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
340
Il est bon en anglais mais médiocre en
mathématiques.
He’s good at English but weak in
mathematics.
Je voulais répondre mais je ne savais pas quoi
dire.
I wanted to answer but I didn’t know what to
say.
Mais que vais-je faire ce soir ? Aucune de mes
amies ne
veut sortir.
But what I am going to do tonight? None of
my friends wants to go out.
13.1.5 ni
Ni can link words, phrases or clauses and is almost always used in tandem with a
second ni (see 7.7):
Quel livre préférez-vous ? Ni l’un ni l’autre. Which book do you prefer? Neither one nor
the other.
ne ... ni (... ni):
Je ne sais pas si elle vient, ni même si on l’a
invitée.
I don’t know if she’s coming or even if she’s
been invited.
Vous ne pouvez pas m’empêcher de m’en aller,
ni vous ni personne.
You can’t stop me going, neither you nor
anyone else.
Il n’a dit ni « oui » ni « non ». He said neither ‘yes’ nor ‘no’.
13.1.6 or
Or is normally followed by a comma and serves to link a statement with a previous one.
This conjunction is normally placed at the beginning of the sentence or clause:
Il n’aimait pas sa vie d’oisif. Or, un jour, un ami
de son père lui a proposé de travailler dans
son restaurant.
He wasn’t happy with his idle life. Now, one
day, a friend of his father’s offered him
work in his restaurant.
Il disait ne pas aimer les femmes, or il avait une
lle et une mère qu’il adorait.
He said he didn’t like women and yet he had
a daughter and a mother that he loved.
Tous les Italiens sont bavards; or Giacomo est
italien, donc Giacomo devrait être bavard.
All Italians are talkative; now Giacomo is
Italian, so he should be talkative.
13.1.7 ou
Ou links words, phrases and clauses and can be placed at the beginning of a sentence.
This conjunction states alternatives, which can express the same thing in other words
or a genuine alternative choice:
Il travaillait dans une compagnie d’assurances
ou quelque chose de ce genre.
He worked for an insurance company or
something of the kind.
Vous pouvez aller au cinéma ou rester chez
vous.
You can go to the cinema or stay at home.
ou ... ou means either … or:
CONJUNCTIONS
CONJUNCTIONS
341
Ou la jalousie ou l’égoïsme l’a fait réagir de
cette manière.
Either jealousy or sel shness made him react
that way.
13.1.8 puis
Puis is used for relating a sequence of events:
J’ai pris mon petit déjeuner, puis je suis allé voir
ma copine.
I had breakfast and then I went to see my
girlfriend.
Ils ont dansé toute la nuit. Puis, épuisés, ils sont
allés se coucher.
They danced the whole night. Then,
exhausted, they went to bed.
13.2 Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions connect a main clause with a subordinate clause. The
conjunction employed may be:
a single word, such as que (that), quand (when), si (if, whether) and comme (as)
a phrase ending in que or si, such as parce que (because), avant que (before), bien
que (although), à condition que (provided that), comme si (as if)
Subordinate clauses may express a variety of meanings, relating mainly to time, cause,
consequence, aim, condition or concession. The subordinate clause may be in the
indicative or the subjunctive: certain conjunctions, such as parce que, are always
followed by the indicative; others, such as bien que, are followed by the subjunctive.
There are some important differences of tense between French and English, notably with
conjunctions of time (quand, depuis que [since], etc.).
13.3 Subordinating conjunctions followed by the
indicative
These conjunctions fall into several categories.
13.3.1 que
Que (that), introducing a noun clause, is the most common subordinating conjunction.
Note that its equivalent in English is frequently omitted:
Tu ne m’avais pas dit que tu avais un frère. You hadn’t told me (that) you’d got a
brother.
Je crois que ça change tout. I think (that) that changes everything.
Note that que may also be followed by the subjunctive:
Je ne crois pas qu’elle vienne. I don’t think she’s coming.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
342
13.3.2 Other conjunctions
A variety of conjunctions relating to cause, preference, exception, etc. are followed by
the indicative. The most common of these are:
à mesure que as
ainsi que just as
alors que while
autant que as far as
comme as
comme si as if
parce que because
plutôt que rather than
puisque since (= because)
sauf que except that
sinon que except that
tandis que while, whereas
vu que seeing that
À mesure qu’approchait l’heure elle devenait de
plus en plus nerveuse.
As the hour approached she became more
and more nervous.
Nous y allons le matin parce qu’il y aura moins
de monde.
We’ll go there in the morning because there
will be fewer people.
Il n’y a rien d’extraordinaire à ce qu’ils se
ressemblent puisqu’ils sont cousins.
It’s not surprising that they look like alike
since they are cousins.
Je préfère prendre le taxi plutôt que d’arriver
en retard.
I prefer to take a taxi rather than arrive late.
Il a fait ses ablutions avant le repas, ainsi qu’il
est de coutume dans ce pays.
He performed his ablutions before the meal,
as is the custom in this country.
Il est passé sans me saluer, comme s’il ne
m’avait pas vu.
He went by without greeting me as if he
hadn’t seen me.
13.3.3 Subordinating conjunctions of time
The most common conjunctions relating to time are:
après que after
aussitôt que as soon as
dès que as soon as
depuis que since (of time)
maintenant que now
lorsque when
pendant que while
quand when
CONJUNCTIONS
CONJUNCTIONS
343
Quand le printemps arrive, le jardin s’éveille. When spring arrives the garden wakes up.
De quoi avez-vous parlé lorsque vous étiez
seuls ?
What did you talk about when you were all
on your own?
Pendant que tu voyageais en Chine j’étudiais
pour mes examens.
While you were travelling in China I was
studying for my exams.
Maintenant qu’elle connaît les règles, elle ne
commettra plus la faute.
Now that she knows the rules she won’t
make the mistake any more.
Depuis qu’il a obtenu son diplôme, il semble
plus con ant.
Since he got his degree he seems more
con dent.
Time clauses with future and conditional tenses
When the verb in the main clause is in a future or conditional tense, the verb in the
subordinate clause must also be in the future, compound future, conditional or
compound conditional. Note that in English the verb in the subordinate clause would be
in the present or a past tense (see also 9.10–9.13).
Quand la guerre sera terminée il sera possible
de visiter le pays.
When the war is over it will be possible to
visit the country.
On leur enverra un texto dès qu’elles arriveront. We’ll send them a text message as soon as
they arrive.
Je viendrai aussitôt que j’aurai ni. I’ll come as soon as I’ve
nished.
Je pense qu’elle quittera la maison dès qu’elle
aura 18 ans.
I think she will leave home as soon as she is
18.
Lorsqu’il sera un peu plus riche, il fera des
travaux dans la maison.
When he’s a little better off he’ll do some
work in the house.
Pendant que lui sera tranquille en train de boire
une bière, moi je serai chez le dentiste.
While he’s calmly drinking a beer, I’ll be at
the dentist.
depuis que clauses
After depuis que the tense is the same as in English if the action that is being described
has been completed:
Depuis qu’elle est allée vivre en France, j’ai
perdu contact avec elle.
Since she went to live in France, I’ve lost
touch with her.
but if the action is / was continuing at the time the speaker is describing it, the English
perfect tense is conveyed by the present tense in French and the English pluperfect tense
is conveyed by the imperfect tense in French:
Depuis qu’elle vit en France je lui écris
regulièrement.
Since she has been living in France I write
to her regularly. [She’s living there now
and I’m writing letters to her.]
Depuis qu’elle vivait en France, je lui écrivais
regulièrement.
Since she had been living in France I wrote
to her regularly. [She was still living in
France at the time when I was writing
letters to her.]
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
344
Note
The same difference between English and French in the use of tenses occurs with Il y a
and Cela fait or Ça fait (colloquial) referring to a period of time that is not yet
completed:
Il y a / Ça fait deux ans que je travaille chez
Renault.
I’ve been working for Renault for two years.
Il y avait deux ans que je travaillais chez
Renault.
I had been working for Renault for two years.
13.3.4 Conditional conjunctions
même si even if
si if
si can mean both ‘if’ and ‘whether’ in English.
when si is part of a conditional sentence the English equivalent is always ‘if’. In these
sentences future or conditional tenses cannot be used in the si clause:
Si j’ai bien compris il a raté son examen. If I’ve understood him correctly he’s failed his
exam.
Si la météo le permet, ils joueront la nale cet
après-midi.
Weather permitting, they will play the nal
this afternoon.
Il ne viendra pas
, même s’il a le temps. He won’t come even if he has the time.
J’aurais pu vous prêter mon portable si j’avais su
que le vôtre ne marchait pas.
I could have lent you my laptop if I’d known
that yours wasn’t working.
Si j’avais du talent je me mettrais à peindre. If I was talented I’d take up painting.
Si j’avais su j’aurais étudié l’informatique. If I’d known I’d have studied computer
science.
When si is used in an indirect question its equivalent is ‘if’ or ‘whether’. In these
constructions any appropriate tense may be used in the si clause:
Je ne sais pas si vous avez rencontré mon ami,
Charles.
I don’t know if / whether you have met my
friend Charles.
Je me demande s’il pleuvra ce soir. I wonder if / whether it will rain this evening.
À l’époque je m’étais demandé si cela valait la
peine de faire un doctorat.
At the time I had wondered if it was worth
while doing a doctorate.
13.4 Subordinating conjunctions followed by the
subjunctive
à condition que provided that
à moins que unless
a n que so that
CONJUNCTIONS
CONJUNCTIONS
345
avant que before
de peur que for fear that
jusqu’à ce que until
bien que although
pour que so that
pourvu que provided that
quoique although
sans que without
L’orage a commencé avant qu’ils aient pu
retourner chez eux.
The storm began before they were able to
get back home.
Il entre dans la chambre sans que personne ne
s’en rende compte.
He goes into the room without anybody
realizing.
Il est parti avant qu’elle n’ait eu le temps de
répondre.
He went off before she had had a chance to
reply.
Bien qu’elle lui ait dit trois fois d’aller se
coucher, l’enfant a refusé.
Even though she told him to go to bed three
times the child refused.
J’accepterai n’importe quel emploi pourvu qu’il
soit bien rémunéré.
I’ll accept any old job provided it’s well paid.
Attends ici, jusqu’à ce que le réservoir soit
plein !
Wait here until the tank is full!
(See also 11.7.)
13.5 Subordinating conjunctions followed by the
indicative or subjunctive, depending on
meaning
The following conjunctions can be followed either by the indicative or the subjunctive,
depending on meaning:
de façon que in such a way that, so that
de manière que in such a way that, so that
de sorte que in such a way that, so that
si bien que in such a way that, so that
When these conjunctions describe an action that has taken place, i.e., there has been a
result, the indicative is used; when the action intended or desired has not taken place, the
subjunctive is used:
Le politicien a parlé de façon que tout le monde
a pu le comprendre.
The politician spoke in such a way that
everyone was able to understand him.
Le politicien parle de façon que tout le monde
puisse le comprendre.
The politician speaks in such a way that every
one can understand him.
La star s’est placée de façon que tout le monde
a pu la prendre en photo.
The star positioned herself so that everyone
was able to take her photo.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
346
La star s’est placée de façon que tout le monde
puisse la voir.
The star has positioned herself so that
everyone can see her.
Puis la crise est arrivée, de sorte que les prix des
maisons sont devenus de nouveau
abordables.
Then the crisis came, so house prices became
affordable again.
Il a préféré retirer son argent de la banque, de
sorte qu’il puisse investir dans la pierre.
He preferred to withdraw his money from
the bank so that he can invest in property.
CONJUNCTIONS
CONJUNCTIONS
347
Conjunctions in context
Aussi rapide que l’éclair…
Quand le 3 avril 2007 la société Alstom décida de faire connaitre au monde les
capacités de son nouveau train AGV (pour Automotrice à Grande Vitesse) et qu’elle
annonça le chiffre record de 574,8 km/h, ce fut l’ébahissement général... bien que
ce chiffre ne représentât pas le record absolu en la matière, puisque le Shinkansen
japonais avait atteint, lui, la vitesse époustoufl ante de 581 km/h en 2003. Mais la
prouesse résidait dans le fait que l’AGV avait accompli sa performance sur des rails
classiques et avec un pantographe et des caténaires. Alors que le Shinkansen,
voulant éviter les frictions, avait opté pour le système maglev à sustentation
magnétique.
Qu’on ne s’y trompe pas ! Tandis que la performance japonaise est excellente et
qu’elle est promise à un meilleur avenir encore, la performance française est
remarquable à plus d’un titre.
D’abord, pour qu’un pantographe puisse résister dans de telles conditions, sans qu’il
soit sectionné par un câble de caténaire défi lant à près de 600 km/h, il a fallu
inventer un matériau exceptionnel. Puis, quoique la voie soient solidement assise sur
le ballast, il a fallu penser à la violence des chocs des roues contre les rails. Là
encore, je ne crois pas que l’invention d’un métal particulièrement résistant ait été
chose facile. Et puis, même si un train n’est pas un avion, à une telle vitesse, le nez
de l’AGV ne peut que piquer vers le haut, à moins qu’une aérodynamique appropriée
ne soit trouvée.
Avant qu’il soit un symbole de vitesse, l’AGV est d’abord un concentré de
technologies de pointe.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
348
Quand le 3 avril 2007 la société Alstom
décida …
quand: subordinating conjunction of time
with past tense [13.3.3]
et qu’elle annonça … et: coordinating conjunction [13.1]
qu’
= repeated subordinating conjunction of
time (qu’ = quand)
bien que ce chiffre ne représentât pas le
record absolu …
bien que: subordinating conjunction followed
by subjunctive [13.4]
puisque le Shinkansen japonais avait atteint
…
puisque: subordinating conjunction followed
by the indicative [13.3.2]
Mais la prouesse résidait dans le fait que l’AGV
…
mais: coordinating conjunction [13.1]
Alors que le Shinkansen, … alors que: subordinating conjunction
followed by the indicative [13.3.2]
Tandis que la performance japonaise est …
et
qu’elle est promise à un meilleur avenir
encore …
tandis que: subordinating conjunction
followed by the indicative [13.3.2]
et : coordinating conjunction [13.1] followed
by que (tandis repeated is understood)
pour qu’un pantographe puisse résister … pour que: subordinating conjunction
followed by subjunctive [13.4]
sans qu’il soit sectionné …. sans que
: subordinating conjunction followed
by subjunctive [13.4]
Puis,
quoique la voie soient solidement assise
sur le ballast, …
puis: coordinating conjunction [13.1]
quoique: subordinating conjunction followed
by subjunctive [13.4]
je ne crois pas que l’invention d’un métal
particulièrement résistant ait été chose facile.
que: subordinating conjunction followed by
the subjunctive [13.4]
Et puis, même si un train n’est pas un avion, et puis: coordinating conjunctions [13.1]
même si: conditional conjunction [13.3.4]
…
à moins qu’ une aérodynamique
appropriée ne soit trouvée.
quoique: subordinating conjunction followed
by subjunctive [13.4]
Avant qu’il soit un symbole de vitesse, l’AGV avant que: subordinating conjunction
followed by subjunctive [13.4]
CONJUNCTIONS
CONJUNCTIONS
349
Exercises
1 Fill the gaps with the correct coordinating conjunction: mais, ou, et, donc,
or, ni, car or puis:
1. Je suis arrivé après la réunion mon train a eu du retard.
2. Je n’aime la viande le poisson.
3. J’aime à la fois les légumes les fruits.
4. J’aime les matières littéraires pas trop les matières scienti ques.
5. J’aime la musique elle me détend.
6. J’étais fort en maths j’ai passé un bac scienti que.
7. Cela m’est égal, café thé, je n’ai pas de préférence.
8. La religion la politique sont des sujets délicats.
9. Tous les hommes ont des défauts, tu es un homme, tu as
des défauts.
10. Il a commencé par apprendre l’espagnol il a continué avec l’allemand.
2 Fill the gaps with the correct subordinating conjunction: à mesure que,
bien que, parce que, plutôt que, pour que, que, quand, selon que or tant que:
1. Je viendrai te voir il fera beau.
2. on m’a bien expliqué, j’ai pu trouver sans problème.
3. de rester devant la télévision tu ferais mieux de bouger un peu.
4. Il a pu s’acheter un voilier il a un bon salaire.
5. Je vais m’assurer vous avez bien compris.
6. La population s’inquiétait l’eau de la rivière montait.
7. il soit de grande taille, il n’est pas excellent en basket-ball.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
350
8. Je vous répète mes conditions tout soit clair entre nous.
9. Tu ne pourras pas aller te coucher tu ne te seras pas brossé les
dents.
10. « vous serez puissant ou misérable, les jugements de cour vous
rendront blanc ou noir. » (Les animaux malades de la peste – Jean de la Fontaine)
3 Fill the gaps with a suitable coordinating or subordinating conjunction:
1. Ses résultats ont été bons il aurait pu mieux faire.
2. Vous n’auriez pas 5 euros à me prêter je puisse m’acheter un
ticket de train ?
3. Je te prêterai mon livre j’aurai ni de le lire.
4. Je n’ai parapluie imperméable.
5. Qu’est-ce que tu prends, une bière un cidre ?
6. J’aurais bien pris une bière je n’avais pas dû conduire.
7. Faites je n’étais pas là.
8. j’ai ni d’écrire ce courriel, je m’occupe de toi.
9. Tu pourras insister tu voudras, je ne cèderai pas.
10. J’ai travaillé tout l’été, maintenant je fais la grasse matinée tous
les jours.
4 Fill the gaps with a suitable conjunction of time, condition or concession:
1. il soit encore jeune, il a acquis beaucoup d’expérience.
2. il était plus riche, il serait moins généreux.
3. il soit riche, il n’est pas très heureux.
CONJUNCTIONS
CONJUNCTIONS
351
4. Je m’achète une maison au bord d’un lac , et
seulement , j’ai un meilleur emploi.
5. il était encore adolescent il lui arrivait de travailler dans un
chenil.
6. il eut atteint l’âge de 18 ans il voulut passer son permis de
conduire.
7. il soit allergique aux poils de chat il a un chat à la maison.
8. C’est il a attrapé le rhume des foins qu’il n’arrête pas d’éternuer.
9. il ait le rhume des foins, il éternue rarement.
10. Il aurait beaucoup d’animaux il n’était pas allergique.
5 Fill the gaps with a suitable conjunction of cause, result, comparison or
purpose:
1. ils puissent en n pro ter du soleil, ils ont décidé de dîner dans le
jardin.
2. il est jeune, on l’interrompt souvent.
3. Il a étudié leur culture il puisse mieux communiquer avec eux.
4. tu as le temps, viens donc boire un verre !
5. Son père sa mère sont tous deux originaires de l’est.
6. Elle a changé son emploi du temps elle puisse y insérer deux
heures de sport.
7. Il nage un poisson dans l’eau.
8. Avec ses 1m90 il est aussi grand les nordiques.
9. Il est tellement grand il ferait un bon basketteur.
10. On lui a retiré trois points du permis il roulait trop vite.
352
RELATIVE PRONOUNS 14
Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause:
The man who answered the phone was very rude.
The bird (that) you saw yesterday was a golden eagle.
Her house, which was built in the eighteenth century, is being restored.
Relative clauses are clauses introduced by words like who, that and which. These words
are relative pronouns. They have two important functions:
As pronouns, they refer back to a previous element in the sentence. In the above
sentences the noun that is referred to (‘man’, ‘bird’, ‘house’) stands immediately before
the relative pronoun, and is called the antecedent.
They link two clauses together. The clause which is introduced by the relative
pronoun is called a subordinate clause.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
353
KEY POINTS
Relative pronouns have two functions in French:
as pronouns, they refer to an element that comes before it, known as the antecedent.
The antecedent can be:
a noun: Le médecin qui l’a soignée. The doctor who looked after her.
a pronoun: C’est lui qui l’a soignée. It’s him who looked after her.
an adjective or a past participle : Imprudents que vous êtes. lit. Foolhardy that you
are.
an adverb : Là où elle va n’est un secret pour personne. Where she’s going is not a
secret to anyone.
a clause: Elle a fait un beau voyage, ce dont je l’envie. She has had a nice journey,
for which I envy her.
a verb (in set expressions): Coûte que coûte ! No matter what!
as subordinating conjunctions, they link a main clause, which usually includes its
antecedent, with a subordinate clause. This is called a relative clause.
Un robot qui parle. A robot that talks.
Unlike in English, in French the relative pronoun is never omitted:
Les livres que j’ai lus. The books I’ve read.
14.1 Agreement with the past participle (see also
10.6.4)
The relative pronoun agrees in gender and number with the antecedent.
A past participle that follows the relative pronoun agrees in gender and number with the
relative pronoun, since the latter refers to its antecedent. The sentence Les olives que j’ai
achetées viennent de Sicile (The olives [that] I bought come from Sicily) consists of:
a main clause: les olives … viennent de Sicile
a relative clause : que j’ai achetées
que is the relative pronoun which stands in the place of olives and which
therefore agrees in gender and number.
is also the direct object of ai achetées and is placed before the past participle
achetées.
olives the antecedent, is a feminine plural noun.
achetées is a past participle related to que, feminine plural, and agreeing with it.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
354
Note
In old expressions, proverbs and sayings, the antecedent is understood:
Qui cherche trouve ! He who seeks shall nd!
14.2 The invariable relatives, qui, que, quoi, dont,
où
These relatives may be combined with the demonstrative ce:
Je sais ce qui compte. I know what counts.
Je sais ce que je dis. I know what I’m saying.
Je sais ce à quoi vous faites allusion. I know what you’re referring to.
In French, as in English, the relative pronouns take on a different form according to their
function in the sentence:
function pronoun antecedent example
subject qui person or thing Le médecin qui vous a examiné.
The doctor who has examined
you.
direct object que, qu’ person or thing L’ordonnance que vous avez reçue.
The prescription you have
received.
indirect object quoi thing Voilà ce à quoi vous tenez tant !
That’s the thing you’re most fond
of!
noun complement dont person or thing L’ordonnance dont il est question.
The prescription we’re talking
about.
adverbial expression où thing La pharmacie où
je vais.
The chemist’s I’m going to.
Note
Care should be taken not to confuse the relative pronouns qui, que, quoi, où with the
interrogative pronouns qui ? que ? quoi ? où ?
Relative : Quel est cet inconnu qui approche ? Who is that stranger who’s
approaching?
Interrogative: Qui va là ? Who goes there?
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
355
14.3 Qui (who, which, that)
Qui is a subject pronoun, unless it is preceded by a preposition:
Voilà le technicien qui a réparé l’aspirateur. There is the engineer who repaired the
vacuum cleaner.
L’homme qui est venu est notre voisin. The man who came is our neighbour.
Le chien qui était dans le jardin appartenait à
notre voisin.
The dog which / that was in the garden
belonged to our neighbour.
Qui can stand for people, animals or things:
C’est l’enfant qui a éteint la bougie. It’s the child who put out the candle.
C’est la bougie qui s’est éteinte. It’s the candle that blew out.
Qui may be preceded by a preposition.
If the antecedent is an animal or a thing it must be replaced by the relative pronoun lequel
(see 14.8):
L’ami à qui j’ai écrit. The friend I wrote to.
Le chat auquel j’ai donné du lait. The cat I gave some milk to.
ce qui (which, what) is a combination of the demonstrative ce + qui:
On a decidé d’aller à la Martinique, ce qui est
fantastique !
We’ve decided to go to Martinique, which is
fantastic!
14.4 Que / qu’ (who[m], which, that, what)
que is a direct object pronoun, which is elided to qu’ before a vowel and silent h. It can
refer to people or things:
ll a des moyens que je n’ai pas. He has means that / which I haven’t got.
Elle a des amis que j’apprécie. She has friends that I like.
Les arbres qu’on a plantés sont des arbres
fruitiers.
The trees that have been planted are fruit
trees.
ce que (which, what) a combination of the demonstrative ce + que,
introduces an idea (what):
Ce que je sais, c’est qu’il travaille à Lyon. What I know is that he works in Lyons.
stands for a previous clause (which):
Il travaille à Lyon, ce que je sais depuis
longtemps.
He works in Lyons, which I have known for a
long time.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
356
celui / celle / ceux / celles que
The demonstrative pronouns celui, celle, ceux and celles are used to introduce relative
clauses (see 3.9.1):
Celle que tu as rencontrée hier n’est pas ma
sœur.
The person you met yesterday is not my
sister.
Ceux que j’ai corrigés, taisez-vous, s’il vous plaît ! Those I’ve corrected be quiet, please!
14.5 Quoi (which, what)
Quoi can only refer to things.
Quoi is always preceded by a preposition when referring to an indirect object or an
adverbial:
Prenez un papier sur quoi écrire. Take a piece of paper to write on. [lit. on
which to write]
Its antecedent can be a determiner, an adverb like rien or pronouns such as ce, quelque
chose:
Il lui faudrait quelque chose à quoi se
raccrocher.
He would need something to cling on to.
Demandez-lui ce à quoi il pensait quand il a
pris une telle décision.
Ask him what he was thinking about when he
took such a decision.
Quoi can introduce an in nitive clause with avoir (to have), acheter (to buy), chercher (to
look for), trouver (to nd), and after voici and voilà:
Je voulais acheter de quoi faire un gâteau, mais
je n’avais pas de quoi payer.
I wanted to buy something to bake a cake
with, but I didn’t have any money to pay
for it.
Note
Care should be taken not to confuse quoi que (whatever), the pronoun, with quoique
(although), the conjunction. In the spoken language this difference can only be
understood from the context:
Quoi que je fasse … Whatever I do …
Quoique je me sois entrainé, je suis arrivé dans
les derniers.
Although I trained, I was among the last to
nish.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
357
14.6 Dont (whose, of / about whom, of which)
Dont is used for a complement introduced by the preposition de. It can be the
complement to a noun, adjective or indirect object.
Noun complement: La montagne dont je vois le sommet … The mountain, whose summit
I can see … (le sommet de la montagne)
Adjective complement: Le sport, dont il est fervent, lui fait beaucoup de bien. Sport, which he
is very keen on, does him a lot of good. (fervent de sport)
Indirect object complement: Le grimpeur dont j’ai parlé … The climber I spoke about …
(parler du / au sujet du / à propos du grimpeur)
Dont can be used for people or things:
L’homme dont on voit le chapeau … The man whose hat can be seen …
La forêt dont on a coupé les arbres … The forest whose trees have been cut …
Le dentiste dont je vous ai parlé … The dentist (who[m]) I told you about …
If dont is separated from its antecedent by a preposition, it must be replaced by duquel, de
laquelle, desquels, desquelles (see 14.8):
L’ami, à la mère duquel j’ai téléphoné, sera là
ce soir.
The friend whose mother I phoned will be
there this evening. (You cannot say here
*dont à la mere.)
14.7 Où (where, in / to which, when)
où as a relative pronoun can only be used for things. It expresses:
an adverbial of place:
La ville où j’habite … The town where I live …
an adverbial of time, unlike in English, where ‘when’ is used:
À l’époque où elle travaillait comme in rmière… At the time when she worked as a nurse …
où can be preceded by a preposition, e.g. d’, par, vers, jusqu’:
Le pays d’où il vient … The country he comes from …
Voilà le sentier par où ils sont passés … There’s the path they went along …
où can have an adverb of place as its antecedent:
Là où ils vont. lit. There where they are going.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
358
14.8 Lequel ([that] which, who[m])
lequel as a relative pronoun:
agrees in gender and number with its antecedent;
can have a person or a thing as its antecedent;
combines with the prepositions à and de.
masculine feminine
singular plural singular plural
without a
preposition
lequel lesquels laquelle lesquelles
à auquel auxquels à laquelle auxquelles
de duquel desquels de laquelle desquelles
La personne à laquelle je pense … The person I’m thinking of …
Les personnes auxquelles je pense … The people I’m thinking of …
Lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles
This pronoun is generally preceded by prepositions such as avec, dans, pour, par, à
l’intérieur de, à propos de, au milieu de, au sujet de, au-dessous de, au-dessus de, chez, d’après,
en face de, entre, parmi, près de, sans, selon:
La piscine dans laquelle nous nous sommes
baignés …
The swimming pool in which we bathed …
Le concept à propos duquel il y eut débat … The concept about which there was a
debate…
If the antecedent is a person, lequel can be replaced by qui:
Les amis chez lesquels nous avons passé
l’été…
The friends with whom we spent the
summer…
Les amis chez qui nous avons passé l’été … The friends with whom we spent the
summer…
Lequel can be used as a subject (who in English), but this usage is mainly literary
and (especially) administrative, to avoid ambiguities with the antecedent:
La police a interrogé deux suspects, lesquels ont
déclaré avoir un alibi.
The police inteviewed two suspects, who
stated that they had alibis.
Lequel must replace qui:
after the prepositions parmi and entre:
Ce pays compte cinq millions d’habitants parmi
lesquels 400 000 suédophones.
This country has 5 million inhabitants, of
whom 400,000 are Swedish-speaking.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
359
after all prepositions if the antecedent is not a person:
Le village auquel je pense … The village I’m thinking of …
La femme à qui je pense … The woman I’m thinking of …
Duquel, de laquelle, desquels, desquelles (of / from which, whose)
This pronoun replaces dont when it is separated from its antecedent by a
preposition:
C’est le professeur dans la classe duquel on a
trouvé des graf ti.
It’s the teacher in whose classroom graf ti
were found.
14.9 Restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses
The sentences:
Les élèves, qui ont bien travaillé, ont eu
d’excellentes notes. (1)
The pupils, who have worked well, have had
excellent marks.
Les élèves qui ont bien travaillé ont eu
d’excellentes notes. (2)
The pupils who have worked well have had
excellent marks.
differ only by the presence of two commas, yet their meaning is quite different: the
number of pupils being given excellent marks is not the same in each case. In sentence (1)
all the pupils have worked well and been given excellent marks. In sentence (2) only
those pupils who have have worked well have been given excellent marks.
Sentence (1) is non-restrictive.
Sentence (2) is restrictive.
Non-restrictive clauses give extra information about the antecedent, which is inserted in
the sentence. This information can be removed without the meaning of the rest of the
sentence being affected. The two commas correspond to a pause when speaking.
Restrictive clauses are essential to the meaning of the sentence and cannot therefore be
removed without loss of meaning.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
360
Relative pronouns in context
Que coûtent les guerres ?
L’Europe est le continent où les confl its furent in cessants. Ce qui a poussé les nations
à tant de barbarie ? La conquête de nouveaux territoires qui seuls garantissaient
puissance et prestige ! Nous avons lu sur les affrontements entre Espagnols et
Français, lesquels se ruinaient régulièrement pour s’arracher des bribes de
territoires. On nous a tout dit sur ce que tel général avait développé de stratégie, ce
à quoi il avait dû faire face, l’idéal pour lequel il s’était battu, et les mille raisons
pour lesquelles il n’aurait pas dû perdre.
Mais ce dont on n’entend jamais parler, là où le bât blesse* en quelque sorte, c’est le
prix qu’ont coûté ces campagnes militaires. Deux pays se mettent soudain à titiller
l’histoire : ce à propos de quoi on se chamaille est surprenant, car c’est un litige
vieux de 400 ans dont il est question.
Notre histoire débute au XVIe siècle. À une époque où l’Espagne était au sommet de
sa gloire. Philippe II, en guerre contre la France, dût emprunter de l’argent. C’est
vers la Pologne qu’il se tourne, de laquelle il reçoit 430 000 ducats en or.
Il pensait que la suprématie dont jouissait son pays sur le plan diplomatique lui
permettait quelques prérogatives dont celle notamment de ne pas rembourser sa
dette.
Voilà de quoi irriter aujourd'hui un jeune député polonais, dont personne n’avait
entendu parler auparavant. Ce dernier adresse une réclamation par laquelle il exige
un remboursement immédiat.
Aujourd’hui les temps sont durs et notre député a fait des calculs. Ce serait de près
de 57 millions d’euros que serait redevable l’Espagne, sans compter les intérêts qui
pourraient s’élever à des centaines de millions.
*Là où le bât blesse That’s where it hurts
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
361
… le continent où les con its furent incessants. où [14.7]
… de nouveaux territoires qui seuls
garantissaient puissance et prestige
qui as subject pronoun [14.3]
… les affrontements entre Espagnols et
Français, lesquels se ruinaient régulièrement
…
lequel [14.8]
On nous a tout dit sur ce que tel général avait
développé de stratégie
ce que [14.4]
ce à quoi il avait dû faire face, quoi [14.5]
… l’idéal pour lequel il s’était battu lequel [14.8]
… les mille raisons pour lesquelles il n’aurait
pas dû perdre
lequel [14.8]
Mais ce dont on n’entend jamais parler dont [14.6]
là où le bât blesse où [14.7]
… le prix qu’ont coûté ces campagnes que as object pronoun, elided to qu’ [14.4]
c’est un litige vieux de 400 ans dont il est
question
dont [14.6]
À une époque où l’Espagne était au sommet de
sa gloire.
où [14.7]
C’est vers la Pologne qu’il se tourne, que as object pronoun, elided to qu’ [14.4]
… de laquelle il reçoit 430 000 ducats en or. lequel [14.8]
… la suprématie dont jouissait son pays dont [14.6]
… quelques prérogatives dont celle
notamment de ne pas rembourser sa dette.
dont [14.6]
Voilà de quoi irriter un jeune député polonais quoi [14.5] after voilà de followed by an
in nitive
… dont personne n’avait entendu parler
auparavant
dont
[14.6]
… une réclamation par laquelle il exige un
remboursement immédiat.
lequel [14.8]
Ce serait de près de 57 millions d’euros que
serait redevable l’Espagne
que as object pronoun [14.4]
… sans compter les intérêts qui pourraient
s’élever à des centaines de millions.
qui as subject pronoun [14.3]
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
362
Exercises
1 Choose the correct relative pronoun between qui, que, qu’ and dont:
La voiture
1. C’est un objet le prestige est grand.
2. C’est un objet on porte au pinacle.
3. C’est un objet a quatre roues.
4. C’est un objet tout le monde aimerait avoir.
5. C’est un objet vous permet de gagner du temps.
6. C’est un objet transporte toute la famille.
7. C’est l’objet il est nécessaire d’avoir aujourd’hui.
8. C’est un objet il faut utiliser avec prudence.
9. C’est un objet , pour des raisons environnementales, il faut utiliser
avec modération.
10. C’est un objet l’usage se mondialise.
2 Choose the correct relative pronoun to ll the gap after the preposition:
1. C’est l’homme pour il a voté.
2. Contre jouez-vous dimanche ?
3. C’est la lle avec il sort.
4. Le débat à il a pris part la semaine dernière est maintenant sur You
tube.
5. C’est le lit sous il a trouvé la bague.
6. La chaise sur il veut monter pour son discours est bancale.
7. Montre-nous de tu es capable.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
363
8. Mais à pensais-tu quand tu as écrit ce mél ?
9. À de ces deux personnages t’identi es-tu ?
10. De est-elle la lle ?
3 Relative pronouns combined with ce.
Fill the gaps with the appropriate relative pronoun, preceded by a preposition when
necessary.
1. Ce je me souviens c’est la balançoire du jardin.
2. Ce il aspire c’est une maison au bord d’un lac.
3. Il a gagné une médaille d’or, ce est incroyable.
4. Je n’achète que ce j’ai besoin.
5. Généralement je ne lis pas ce m’ennuie.
6. Il n’a pas eu son baccalauréat, ce on s’attendait.
7. Ce compte pour lui c’est de réussir sa vie sociale.
8. Ce elle souhaite réussir c’est sa vie professionnelle.
9. Manger sainement, c’est ce j’aime.
10. Ce il a peur c’est de ne pas trouver de travail.
4 Celui qui / que…, celle qui / que…, ceux qui / que…, celles qui / que…, ce qui
/ que… etc.
Fill the blanks with the correct relative pronouns, preceded by a preposition when
necessary.
1. je préfère c’est Simone de Beauvoir.
2. mon cœur vibre c’est Albert Camus.
3. m’amuse le plus c’est Molière.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
364
4. je préfère c’est la poésie.
5. m’amuse le plus c’est le théâtre.
6. je trouve dif ciles ce sont Racine et Boileau.
7. je trouve excellentes ce sont Marguerite Yourcenar et Marguerite
Duras.
8. j’apprécie l’œuvre ce sont les écrivains du Nouveau roman.
9. ont révolutionné le cinéma ce sont Coline Serreau et Yannick Bellon.
10. je rends hommage ce sont François Truffaut et Agnès Varda.
5 Choose the correct relative pronoun, où or dont:
1. Le jour le président fut élu.
2. Le président la campagne électorale fut exemplaire.
3. L’école il a enseigné.
4. L’école on loue l’enseignement.
5. La ville d’ il vient.
6. La ville il habite la banlieue.
7. La ville il est né.
8. Le chercheur on vient de récompenser l’œuvre.
9. Le laboratoire, les crédits ont été diminués, cherche de nouvelles
subventions.
10. C’est là on a diminué les crédits.
365
15 QUESTIONS AND
EXCLAMATIONS
15.1 Questions
Introduction
Direct questions are of two kinds: those that ask for information, in which case a
question word like What?, When? or Why? introduces the question, as in: What are you
doing this evening?, and those that expect the answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’, as in Are you going
out this evening?. Questions may also be indirect: Ask her what she’s doing this evening.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
366
KEY POINTS
In French, yes / no questions can be formulated in one of three ways:
Are you going out this evening? can be rendered by:
turning a statement into question, adding a question mark:
Tu sors ce soir. > Tu sors ce soir ?
inverting the verb and the subject pronoun:
Sors-tu ce soir ?
placing Est-ce que before the statement, adding a question mark:
Est-ce que tu sors ce soir ?
A formula may be used, in the spoken language especially, for certain question words,
for example:
questions beginning with Who? may be introduced by Qui est-ce qui ? or Qui est-ce
que ?
Qui est-ce qui le dit ? Who says so?
Qui est-ce qu’elle a vu hier ? Who did she see yesterday?
questions beginning with What? may be introduced by Qu’est-ce qui ? and Qu’est-ce
que ?
Qu’est-ce qui se passe ? What’s going on?
Qu’est-ce que tu as acheté ? What did you buy?
15.1.1 Direct questions: yes / no answers
Questions expressed by intonation
When a statement is turned into a question, the speaker employs a rising intonation at
the end of the sentence:
Tu reviens demain ? Are you coming back tomorrow?
Tu me prêtes ton magazine ? Will you lend me your magazine?
This way of formulating questions is mainly used in the spoken language.
Inversion of the subject pronoun and the verb
When the subject is a pronoun, a question is created by inverting the verb and the
pronoun and joining them by a hyphen:
Voulez-vous m’accompagner au commissariat ? Will you go with me to the police station?
Avez-vous toujours votre belle voiture ? Have you still got your beautiful car?
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367
With the rst person, inversion of this kind is not usual except for a few verbs, such as
pouvoir and avoir:
Puis-je vous donner la clé ? Can I give you the key?
Ai-je bien compris vos propos ? Have I understood your comments properly?
Where necessary, -t- is inserted between the verb and the pronoun to avoid a clash
of two vowels:
A-t-elle dit ce qu’elle va faire ? Has she said what she’s going to do?
Chanta-t-il sans orchestre ou avec orchestre ? Did he sing with or without an orchestra?
When the subject of the sentence is a noun, inversion can still take place, but the
noun is placed at the beginning of the question and ‘duplicated’ by a subject
pronoun after the verb:
Claude, as-tu apporté les disques ? Have you brought the disks, Claude?
Marie et Michel, viendront-ils cet été ? Will Marie and Michel come this
summer?
Est-ce que ?
Est-ce que is placed at the beginning of the statement and a question mark added:
Est-ce que tu as apporté les disques, Claude ? Have you brought the disks, Claude?
Est-ce que toutes les portes ont été fermées ? Have all the doors been shut?
15.1.2 Question tags: n’est-ce pas ? non ?
Question tags in English, like ‘isn’t it’, ‘don’t they’, ‘aren’t you’, ‘didn’t it’ may be
rendered in French by n’est-ce pas ?:
Ils sont allés faire des courses, n’est-ce pas ? They’ve gone shopping, haven’t they?
C’est vous qui avez laissé les lumières allumées,
n’est-ce pas ?
It’s you who left the lights on, isn’t it?
In spoken French the tag non ? is also used very frequently:
Tu as fermé les fenêtres, non ? You’ve closed the windows, haven’t you?
On s’est déjà rencontrés, non ? We’ve met before, haven’t we?
15.1.3 Direct questions
Note
A number of question words, or interrogative pronouns, such as que, qui, lequel and où
are also relative pronouns, and should not be confused with the latter (see 14.2).
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
368
Using question words
Question words can be placed at the beginning or at the end of a question. If they
are at the beginning, the verb and subject pronoun are inverted:
Où est-il allé ? Where has he gone?
Combien de fois as-tu vu ce lm
? How many times have you seen that
lm?
Lequel des deux est Bertrand ? Which of the two is Bertrand?
If the question word is at the end of the word there is no inversion:
Il est allé où ? Where has he gone?
Vous avez vu ce
lm combien de fois ? How many times have you seen that lm?
Mais ce dessin, ça ressemble à quoi
? What kind of drawing is that?
The latter construction is colloquial, and the speaker employs a rising intonation at the
end of the question.
If there is a noun subject it is placed after the question word and ‘duplicated’ by a
subject pronoun after the verb:
Où Marianne est-elle allée ? Where has Marianne gone?
Comment tes amis ont-ils voyagé, en train ou
en voiture ?
How did your friends travel, by train or by
car?
Pourquoi ton frère ne vient-il plus à la
gymnastique ?
Why doesn’t your brother come to
gymnastics any more?
Question words are frequently followed by est-ce que, without inversion:
Où est-ce qu’il est allé ? Where has he gone?
Quand est-ce que tu vas quitter l’université ? When are you going to leave university?
Pourquoi est-ce qu’elle est venue ce matin
? Why did she come this morning?
Comment est-ce que tu t’appelles
? What is your name?
Depuis combien de temps est-ce que tu
étudies ?
How long have you studied for?
Combien ? How much? How many?
Combien may be used alone or followed by a complement:
Ça t’a coûté combien ? How much did that cost you?
Combien de gens y a-t-il dans le stade ? How many people are there in the stadium?
Cela prend combien de jours pour traverser la
Sibérie en train ?
How many days does it take to cross Siberia
by train?
Dans cette pièce vous vivez à
combien ? How many of you live in this room?
Comment ? How? What?
Comment vas-tu ? How are you?
Comment trouvez-vous la ville ? How do you nd / What do you think of the
town?
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369
Comment est ton nouveau portable ? What is your new mobile like?
Comment est-ce que ça marche ? How does it work?
Lequel / laquelle / lesquels / lesquelles ? Which (ones[s])?
lequel, etc. is used when referring to a choice between options. It agrees in number
and gender with the thing referred to:
Lesquels de ces chocolats préférez-vous, les
blancs ou les noirs ?
Which of these chocolates do you prefer, the
white or the dark ones?
– Regarde cette voiture !
– Laquelle ?
‘Look at that car!’
‘Which one?’
In combination with à, lequel, etc. become: auquel, à laquelle, auxquels, auxquelles
Auquel des tes collègues as-tu donné les billets ? Which of your colleagues did you give the
tickets to?
In combination with de, lequel, etc. become: duquel, de laquelle, desquels, desquelles
De laquelle de ces villes es-tu originaire ? Which of these towns do you come from?
Où ? Where?
Où est la piscine ? Where is the swimming pool?
Où est-ce qu’on peut trouver des magasins de
chaussures ?
Where can we nd shoe shops?
Où
Marie va-t-elle avec sa copine ? Where is Marie going with her friend?
Pourquoi ? Why?
Pourquoi n’est-elle pas revenue ? Why hasn’t she come back?
Pourquoi ne veut-il pas nous accompagner ? Why doesn’t he want to come with us?
Pourquoi est-ce qu’ils ont pris le train
? Why did they take the train?
Quand ? When?
Quand reviendrez-vous ? When will you come back?
Quand l’avion arrivera-t-il à Paris ? When will the plane get to Paris?
Quand est-ce que nous pourrons nous
promener ?
When can we go for a walk?
Que ? and Qu’est-ce qui / que ? What?
Qu’est -ce qui ? is used when referring to things, as subject.
Que or Qu’est-ce que ? are alternatives when referring to things, as object.
Que What?
a Que ? cannot be used as a subject pronoun. Qu’est-ce qui ? has to be used.
What comes afterwards? Qu’est-ce qui vient après ? and not *Que vient après ?
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
370
b Que ? may be used as an object pronoun, and is placed at the beginning of a
sentence. Que ? is elided to Qu’ ? before a vowel or silent ‘h’:
Que voulez-vous dire ? What do you mean?
Que fait-il ? What’s he doing?
Qu’ont dit tes voisins
? What did your neighbours say?
c Colloquially, at the end of a sentence and before a preposition que ?
becomes
quoi ?
Ils parlent de
quoi ? What are they talking about?
Il fait quoi ? What’s he doing?
d Que ? may be used before an in nitive to ask a question:
Que faire ? What shall we do?
Que dire ? What’s to be said?
Que penser de tout ce gaspillage ? What should we think about all this waste?
Qu’est-ce qui ? What?
Qu’est-ce qui ? is the only possibility for What? as subject of a sentence:
Qu’est-ce qui s’est passé ? What happened?
Qu’est-ce qui a changé notre société ainsi ? What has changed our society in this way?
Qu’est-ce que ? What?
Qu’est-ce que ? is an alternative to que as object of a sentence:
Qu’est-ce que tu as dit ? What did you say?
Qu’est-ce que vous cachez dans vos poches ? What are you hiding in your pockets?
Qu’est-ce qu’ils attendent? What are they waiting for?
Quel / quelle / quels / quelles ? What? Which?
Quel / quelle / quels / quelles, etc. are adjectives that agree with the noun they qualify in
number and gender:
À quelle heure tu reviendras ? What time will you come back?
Quelle région de France préférez-vous
? Which region of France do you prefer?
Dans quel pays êtes-vous né ? In which country were you born?
Quelles sont les erreurs à ne pas commettre
dans ton pays ?
What are the mistakes that should be
avoided in your country?
Qui ? and Qui est-ce qui / que ? Who? Whom?
Qui ? and Qui est-ce qui ? are alternatives, when referring to people, as subject.
Qui ? or Qui est-ce que ? are alternatives, when referring to people, as object.
Qui ? Who? Whom?
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371
Qui ? can be used as the subject of a sentence:
Qui est là ? Who’s there?
Qui amènera la voiture chez le garagiste ? Who will take the car to the garage?
Qui ?
is used, with inversion, as the object of a sentence and after prepositions:
Qui Monique a-t-elle vu à Marseille
? Who did Monique see in Marseilles?
Avec qui est-il venu ? Who did he come with?
Qui
Chiara épouse-t-elle ? Who is Chiara going to marry?
Par qui s’est-il fait insulter
? Who has he been insulted by?
Pour qui travaille-t-il
? Who does he work for?
Qui est-ce qui ? Who?
Qui est-ce qui a crié ? Who shouted?
Qui est-ce qui remplacera notre prof de
maths ?
Who will replace our maths teacher?
Qui est-ce qui s’est servi de mon savon ? Who’s been using my soap?
Qui est-ce que ? Who? Whom?
Qui est-ce qu’ils ont rencontré à Cannes ? Who(m) did they meet in Cannes?
Qui est-ce que vous avez croisé à Londres,
hier ?
Who did you meet in London yesterday?
Qui est-ce que vous avez examiné, docteur ? Who did you examine, doctor?
Quoi ? What?
Quoi ? replaces que ? after prepositions and at the end of a sentence, as a direct object:
De quoi s’agit-il ? What’s it about?
À quoi penses-tu ? What are you thinking about?
Il a demandé quoi ? What did he ask for?
Avec quoi
as-tu payé ? What did you pay with?
Contre quoi
était-il appuyé ? What was he leaning against?
Expressions with quoi ?
Quoi de neuf
? What’s new?
Quoi encore ? What now?
Pour quoi faire
? What for?
15.1.4 Si in response to negative questions
When a question which anticipates a negative answer is answered in the af rmative, si,
and not oui, is the response (see 7.15):
– Tu ne me crois pas ? – Si. You don’t believe me. Yes (I do).
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
372
15.1.5 Indirect questions
KEY POINTS
Indirect questions are questions reported as having been asked, after verbs like demander
(to ask), savoir (to know), dire (to say). Such questions are introduced by a question word
or si (if / whether):
Il m’a demandé pourquoi je voulais émigrer. He asked me why I wanted to emigrate.
The direct question asked in the above example would be:
Pourquoi vous voulez émigrer ? Why do you want to emigrate?
There is no inversion of the subject pronoun and verb in indirect questions:
Il ne m’a pas dit quand il viendra. He hasn’t told me when he’s coming.
Elle m’a demandé quel temps il faisait. She asked me what the weather was like.
Il m’a expliqué comment cela fonctionnait. He explained to me how that worked.
Elle demande qui viendra la chercher à la gare. She’s asking who will come to get her at the
station.
si (if, whether) is used when a direct yes / no question becomes an indirect one:
Je me demande s’il fait attention. I wonder if he’s paying attention.
Ils ne savent pas si leur ls se trouve en France
ou en Belgique.
They don’t know whether their son is in
France or Belgium.
ce que and ce qui
In indirect questions, the equivalents of what? (qu’est-ce qui ? [subject] and que ? / qu’est ce
que ? [object]) are ce qui and ce que respectively:
Je ne sais pas ce qui vous gêne. I don’t know what’s bothering you.
Il ne comprend pas ce que vous avez dit. He doesn’t understand what you said.
Je ne vois pas ce qui vous chagrine. I can’t see what’s worrying you.
Elle veut savoir ce que vous faites dans ce jardin. She wants to know what you are doing in this
garden.
15.2 Exclamations
We use exclamations to express a whole range of emotions: surprise, joy, disgust, horror,
relief, shock, etc.
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373
KEY POINTS
Exclamatory expressions in French are frequently introduced by words like quel(le) !,
quoi ! and comment !
Quel dommage ! What a pity!
The subjunctive is used occasionally for exclamations, in set expressions:
Vive le président ! Long live the President!
15.2.1 Exclamatory words
Comme ! (how)
Comme il se vante ! How he boasts!
Comme le temps est clément aujourd’hui ! How mild the weather is today!
Que ! (how)
Qu’elle est belle, la France ! How beautiful France is!
Qu’il est haut, ce gratte-ciel ! How high that skyscraper is!
Quel / quelle / quels / quelles ! (how, what)
Quel / quelle / quels / quelles ! agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify:
Quel froid ! How cold it is!
Quelle horreur ! How awful!
Qu’est-ce que … !
Qu’est-ce qu’iI fait chaud ! How hot it is!
Quoi ! Comment !
These two words are often used on their own to express disbelief:
Quoi ! Nous avons perdu ! What! We’ve lost!
Comment ! Ça, c’est incroyable ! What! That’s unbelievable!
Comment ! Vous arrivez d’Asie et vous ne me
dites rien !
What! You’ve come back from Asia and
you’re not saying anything to me!
15.2.2 The subjunctive used in exclamations
Que ! followed by the subjunctive has an exclamatory force:
Que Dieu vous bénisse ! May God bless you!
Que ta vie soit pleine de bonheur ! May your life be full of happiness!
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
374
15.2.3 Interjections
As in all languages, interjections are used to express emotion. Here are some common
ones:
Aïe ! Ouch!
Hein ! What!
Zut ! Damn!
Allez ! Come on!
Mon Dieu ! My goodness!
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375
Questions and exclamations in context
La mère et l’enfant
A- Maman ! C’est quoi que tu regardes ?
B- Quel langage ! Veux-tu bien parler correctement ?
A- Que- re-gar-des-tu, ma-man, ché-rie ?
B- Ah ! Mais c’est mieux ainsi, n’est-ce pas ?
A- Oui, mais je me demande si on ne va pas se moquer de moi à l’école.
Qu’est-ce que tu regardes ?
B- Ce que je regarde ? Tu vois bien ? Ce sont de vieilles photos de grand-père. Tiens !
Qui est ce jeune homme avec une belle moustache ?
A- Je ne sais pas. Est-ce que je suis censé le connaître ?
B- C’est justement mon grand-père. Ton arrière-grand-père
A- Mais c’est lequel de tes grand-pères ? De quand date cette photo ? Quel âge
avait-il ?
B- Tu ne devines pas son âge ? Qu’est-ce que tu vois derrière ?
A- Ouaou ! Que d’eau ! Comment font les gens pour marcher dans cette eau ?
B- Ce sont les inondations de 1938. Ton grand-père avait donc… ?
A- Attends ! Il avait…. Il avait… 20 ans ?
B- Presque. Il avait 18 ans
A- Où il est mort ton grand-père ?
B- Où est-il mort grand-père ! Pas « Où il est mort » ? Combien de fois faudra-t-
il que je te le répète ?
A- Comment il est mort, grand-père ?
B- Il est mort à la guerre. Que Dieu ait son âme ! Aux côtés des Anglais à El-
Alamein.
A- C’est là-bas qu’il a été tué ? Mais il n’était pas avec les Anglais ?
B- Mais si !
A- Et ça fait combien de temps ?
B- Attends !... Quel jour sommes-nous ? Qu’est-ce que tu as fait du calendrier ?...
C’était en 1942… Cela va faire…
A- Mais est-ce que tu étais née ?
B- Non ! Quelle question !
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
376
C’est quoi que tu regardes ? quoi ? [15.1.3]
Quel langage ! exclamatory quel ! [15.2.1]
Veux-tu bien parler correctement ? direct question: yes / no answer [15.1.1]
n’est-ce pas ? question tag [15.1.2]
je me demande si on ne va pas se moquer de
moi…
indirect question using si [15.1.5]
Qu’est-ce que tu regardes ? qu’est-ce que ? [15.1.3]
Qui est ce jeune homme avec une belle
moustache ?
qui ? [15.1.3]
Est-ce que je suis censé le connaître ? direct question: yes / no answer [15.1.1]
Mais c’est lequel de tes grand-pères ? lequel ? [15.1.3]
De quand date cette photo ? quand ? [15.1.3]
Quel âge avait-il ? quel ? [15.1.3]
Ouaou ! Que d’eau ! exclamations [15.2.1 and 15.2.3]
Comment font les gens pour marcher dans
cette eau ?
comment ? [15.1.3]
Où il est mort ton grand-père ? colloquial for ‘Où est-il mort grand-père
?’
[15.1.3]
Que Dieu ait son âme ! exclamation using subjunctive [15.2.2]
Mais il n’était pas avec les Anglais ? direct question: yes / no answer [15.1.1]
Mais si ! si in response to a negative question [15.1.4]
Et ça fait combien de temps ? combien ? [15.1.3]
Quelle question ! exclamatory quelle ! [15.2.1]
QUESTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS
QUESTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS
377
Exercises
1 Match the questions in the left-hand column with the answers in the
right-hand column:
Questions Responses
1 Où Camilla est-elle née ? A Elle s’appelle Mikaela
2 Qui est sa sœur ? B L’avion
3 Est-ce que sa sœur est plus âgée ? C Le train
4 Laquelle des deux est plus sportive ? D Oui, à partir du Canada
5 Comment ira-t-elle aux Etats-Unis ? E Si, mais c’est plus cher
6 Est-ce qu’il est possible d’aller aux
Etats-Unis en bus ?
F La cadette
7 N’y a-t-il pas de train ? G En Suède
8 Qu’est-ce qui est plus confortable ? H Si sa sœur l’accompagnera
9 Quel est le moyen le plus rapide ? I Non, elle a 2 ans de moins
10 Que se demande Camilla ? J En bus
2 Fill the gap with the correct question word:
1. est cet homme ?
C’est mon ami.
2.
fait-il dans la vie ?
Il est comédien.
3. Et tes parents ? sont-ils ?
Ils sont plutôt cool.
4. as-tu de frères et sœurs ?
Deux sœurs et un frère.
5. âge a ton frère ?
Il a 17 ans.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
378
6. il fait ?
Il est écolier.
7. vont tes sœurs?
À l’école primaire.
8. passe son bac cette année ?
L’aînée.
9. elle voudra étudier plus tard ?
La géographie.
10. de ces métiers envisage-t-elle ?
Le professorat.
3 Fill the gap with the appropriate question word, using either où,
comment, quand, pourquoi, combien, quel, quoi or qui est-ce qui:
1. de temps faut-il pour aller à Cambridge ?
2. est le meilleur moyen pour aller à Oxford ?
3. D’ part le train pour Paris ?
4. tu as fait pour rater ton avion ?
5. pars-tu, en juillet ou en août ?
6. refuses-tu de lui serrer la main ?
7. est-ce que tu cours, comme ça ? À la gare?
8. d’autre encore ?
9. t’a fait passer ton oral ?
10. C’est pour ce mariage ?
QUESTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS
QUESTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS
379
4 Fill the gap with the most suitable word or expression:
1. s’appelle-t-il ? François !
– qui
– comment
– combien
2. est-ce qu’il habite ?
– où
– avec quoi
– quand
3. ça lui a coûté ?
– qui
– comment
– combien
4. ? C’est Marc !
– qui est-ce qui
– qu’est-ce que
– qui est-ce
5. temps fait-il ?
– quel
– quels
– lequel
6. vous travaillez ?
– où est-ce que
– qu’est-ce que
– qui est-ce que
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
380
7. fait le ménage à la maison ?
– que
– pourquoi
– qui
8. vous prendrez comme apéritif ?
– qui est-ce que
– qu’est-ce que
– comment
9. Tu n’as toujours pas changé ta voiture ? !
– oui
– bien sûr
– si
10. de vous deux fait des études d’in rmière ?
– lesquels
– laquelle
– quelle
5 Isabel’s biography
Ask a suitable question for each answer using est-ce que …
Questions Responses
1. naissance En mai 1989.
2. naissance À Helsinki.
3. langue À la maison
? Le suédois !
4.
éducation Oui, une très bonne élève.
5. études Oui, le droit.
6.
études À l’université de Helsinki.
7.
études Pour encore 3 ans.
8.
vie sociale Oui, Camilla est sa meilleure amie.
9.
vie sociale Des amis ? Au moins trois.
10.
carrière Après sa licence
? Elle voudra faire un
master.
381
APPENDIX: PUNCTUATION,
ACCENTS AND THE FRENCH
PHONETIC ALPHABET
1 There are 10 main punctuation marks in French:
punctuation
mark
name space (in print)
before after
. le point full stop, period, dot no yes
, la virgule comma no yes
: le / les deux points colon yes yes
; le point-virgule semicolon yes yes
! le point d’exclamation exclamation mark yes yes
? le point d’interrogation question mark yes yes
… les points de suspension ellipsis (three dots) no n/a
—
–
le tiret long
le tiret moyen
em-dash (long and
medium)
yes
yes
yes
yes
- le trait d’union (or tiret
court)
hyphen no no
« » les guillemets (m) quotation marks yes
(closing
one)
yes
(opening
one)
2 To the above can be added the following related punctuation marks:
( ) les parenthèses (f) brackets yes (closing
one)
yes (opening
one)
[ ] les crochets (droits) (m) (square) brackets no (closing
one)
no (opening
one)
’ l’apostrophe (f) apostrophe no no
* l’astérisque (f) asterisk no
(depending on
position)
no
(depending on
position)
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
382
Other punctuation marks
/ la barre oblique, le slash forward slash yes yes
\ la barre oblique inverse, l’anti slash backslash yes yes
@ l’arobase (f) ‘at’ sign no no
{ } les accolades (f) curly brackets yes
(closing
one)
yes (opening
one)
Punctuation marks which consist of several elements such as le point-virgule (;), les deux
points ( :), les guillemets (« »), le point d’exclamation ( !), le point d’interrogation (?), le signe de
pourcentage (the percentage sign: %) and les tirets (–), les devises (currencies: £, €), are all
preceded and followed by a space in French. However, the rule is less strict for le
point-virgule, for which the rst space may be omitted. In English there is no space
before these punctuation marks but there is one after them.
French: Il dit : « Si nous allions à New York cet été ? »
English: He says: ‘How about going to New York this summer?’
Some of these signs are used in sciences, especially mathematics and physics.
Although punctuation in French and English is very similar, some differences in their use
and their written form exist. We have listed below those punctuation marks which have
signi cant differences.
Full stop (.)
The full stop is placed after an abbreviation whose last letter is not the same as that of
the word.
Monsieur : M.
But, Madame : Mme (without a full stop)
With gures
In decimals, French uses a comma where English employs a full stop.
For the gure mille and components of larger gures with mille, French uses a space
or a full stop where English uses a comma as in the example below.
French English
Decimals 108,7 (cent huit virgule sept) 108.7 (a hundred and eight
point seven)
Components of a larger
gure than a thousand with
mille
126.322.985 (the full stop is
not pronounced)
126 322 985
126,322,985
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
383
Shortened forms of measurements do not have a full stop, even if the abbreviation
does not end in the last letter of the word:
36 km
100 m
30 min
Comma (,)
The comma is used when listing words or clauses of the same nature and function (see
also full stop above). The last term of the list is linked to the rest by the conjunctions et
or ou. One of these conjunctions is compulsory in French whereas in English a comma is
possible instead of and:
Deux tranches de pain, un bol de céréales, un
pot de con ture et du beurre.
Two slices of bread, a bowl of cereal, a pot of
jam,
and bread.
Question mark (?)
The two differences from English are:
the use of the double question mark
the use of the question mark and exclamation mark together, for emphasis or irony
intention:
Comment ? La langue chinoise ne serait pas
dif cile ? !
What? The Chinese language is not dif cult?
Exclamation mark (!)
The use of the double or triple exclamation mark, or of the question mark and
exclamation mark together, to intensify the emotion:
Vous êtes complètement fou ! ! ! You’re completely crazy!
C’est un Italien et il n’aime pas les pâtes ? ! He’s Italian and he doesn’t like pasta!
Quotation marks (« … »)
Quotation marks take the form of chevrons:
« Approchez, SVP ! ». ‘Come close, please!’
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
384
They are used to mark the beginning and end of dialogue.
They are used for all quotations or speechmarks:
« Et ainsi ne pouvant faire que ce qui est juste
fût fort, on a fait que ce qui est fort fût
juste. » (Blaise Pascal, Les Pensées, Raison
des effets n° 137)
‘And so, not being able to ensure that what is
just was strong, we ensured that what is
strong was just.’
Il répète souvent « n’est-ce pas ? », c’est agaçant ! He often says ‘n’est-ce pas ?’, it’s annoying!
They frame a word or an expression that the speaker recognizes is not his own:
Je serais donc « idiot » et je ne comprendrais
« rien à rien » d’après lui !
So I’m an ‘idiot’ and I’d understand ‘nothing
about anything’, according to him!
They frame foreign words or expressions:
Il a une attitude très « british ». He has a very ‘British’ attitude.
English inverted commas: “…” may be used for a quotation within another quotation:
« Mesdames et Messieurs, lorsque Descartes dut
expliquer que “Cogito, ergo sum” ne signi ait
pas simplement que … ».
‘Ladies and Gentlemen, when Descartes had
to explain that “Cogito, ergo sum” did not
just mean that …’
Unlike in English, quotations marks in French include short phrases, e.g. dit-il (said he),
suggéra Monsieur Untel … (Mr So-and-so suggested …)
For longer phrases it is preferable to interrupt the quotation marks and to begin again:
« Je n’ai pas trouvé les ingredients », dit mon
ami, la mine décon te et le regard coupable,
«j’ai fait pourtant plusieurs magasins ».
‘I haven’t found the ingredients’, said my
friend, crestfallen and with a guilty look.
‘Yet I’ve tried several shops’.
The em-dash (long) (—)
The em-dash is used in a dialogue to indicate a change of speaker:
« — Bonjour Mikaela ! dit Rose. Comment
vas-tu ?
— Ah, bonjour Tante ! Excellent ! S’écria
Mikaela, joviale, je viens d’emménager à Paris.
— Génial ! Dans quel quartier ?
— Près de la Tour Eiffel, répond-elle. Mais …
— Quelle chance ! ».
‘Hello Mikaela!’ Rose says. ‘How are you?’
‘Oh, hello Auntie! I’m very well’, shouted
Mikaela jovially. ‘I’ve just moved to Paris.’
‘Fantastic! Whereabouts in Paris?’
‘Near the Eiffel Tower,’ she replies. ‘But—’
‘How lucky you are!’
The em-dash in French is never used to indicate that speech has tailed off. Only
ellipsis may be used. In English, on the other hand, either ellipsis or the em-dash may
be used.
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
385
The en-dash (medium) (–)
The en-dash (tiret d’incise) may be used instead of brackets to add an explanation, a
commentary, etc.:
Le TGV – mon train préféré – fut inauguré en
1986.
The TGV – my favourite train – was
inaugurated in 1986.
The hyphen (-)
The hyphen is used to mark:
a link between one or more words
compound words like un porte-avions (aircraft carrier)
connections between grammatical terms: allez-vous-en ! (Go away!) Qu’y a-t-il dans
la soupe ? (What’s in the soup?)
words which are broken when they are too long for the line
isolating one part of a word, such as a verb ending: the ending -ais of the verb.
The apostrophe (’)
The apostrophe is used to replace a vowel that is elided in order to avoid contact with
another vowel:
Si + il S’il
Que + il Qu’il
Care must be taken with Qui followed by a vowel, which is not elided: Qui il
The asterisk
Three asterisks indicate a surname which is reduced to an initial:
Mme de T*** ne pourra pas assister au repas de
ce soir.
Mme de T. will not be able to attend the meal
this evening.
The forward slash
The forward slash is used:
in fractions: ¾ , ⅝
for measuring speed, etc. 100 km/h (‘kilometres per hour’ understood)
occasionally to replace a hyphen: Le TGV Paris/Lyon
to indicate an alternative word or expression: et / ou
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
386
Accents
There are four accents in French, which are placed on vowels, and one cedilla, which is
placed under the letter c : ç.
The acute and grave accents
The acute accent can only be placed on e to indicate the closed sound /e/ : été.
The grave accent is placed on e to indicate the open sound /ɛ/: crème
Note: the following are pronounced /ɛ/ and have a grave accent è:
e followed by silent e : collège, Irène, chèrement
Exception
médecin, médecine; the pre xes dé- and pré-; initial é-
e followed by a nal s when it is not a plural: près (compare with des prés), congrès,
abcès
A grave accent is placed on a and u (à, ù) to differentiate between two homographs:
à (at) vs a (has); là (there) vs la (the or her); où (where) vs ou (or)
Notes
Ça is written without an accent, except in the expression çà et là (here and there).
Deçà, delà, au-delà, voilà are written with an accent; only cela is written without
an accent.
ù with an accent is only found in the word où.
a grave accent on a vowel other than e does not change the pronunciation: ou is
pronounced the same as où, and a as à.
The circum ex accent
The circum ex accent:
is found on the vowels a, e, i, o, u (â, ê, î, ô, û).
indicates an s (or, unusually, another letter) that has been lost:
forêt (forest), hôpital (hospital), coût (cost)
Note that the third person singular of the imperfect subjunctive, the rst two
persons plural of the simple past and the rst two persons plural of the past
subjunctive always have a circum ex accent: qu’elle parlât; nous fîmes, vous fîtes.
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
387
differentiates two homographs:
du (de + le) vs dû (past participle of devoir); crû (‘grown’, from croître) vs cru
(‘believed’, from croire)
The circum ex accent does not change the pronunciation: un mur (wall) / mûr (ripe), sur
(on, south) / sûr (sure), un atome (atom) / un diplôme (diploma).
Note
The Recti cations de l’orthographe de 1990 recommend the removal of the circum ex accent
on u and i (apart from the subjunctive forms mentioned above): e.g. couter (to cost),
paraitre (to appear), il parait, connaitre (to know) (see Recti cations orthographiques below)
The diaeresis
The diaeresis is found on the vowels e, i, u (ë, ï, ü). It indicates two consecutive vowels
that must be pronounced separately: Noël (Christmas), naïf (innocent), aiguë (acute) (or
aigüe – see Recti cations orthographiques below).
The cedilla (ç)
The cedilla is placed beneath a c followed by a, o, u, to indicate that it must be
pronounced /s/ (c followed by e, i, œ is always pronounced /s/):
Il commença la leçon. He began the lesson.
Il est déçu. He’s disappointed.
cœliaque coeliac
Use of the acute and grave accents
When an accent is added to the letter e a change in pronunciation follows: compare un
modelé (contours), un modèle (model).
The general rule is as follows:
The vowel e pronounced /e/ or /ɛ/ only uses an acute or grave accent if it is at the end of
an open syllable. An e pronounced /e/ which is at the end of a word always uses an acute
accent:
un côté (side), un pré (meadow), amusé (amused), parlé (spoken), le café (coffee)
If a syllable ends in a consonant (a closed syllable), the letter e never uses an accent:
un pro-jet, per-dre, fo-res-tier
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
388
Open syllable Closed syllable Mixture of open and closed
syllables
clé (key) jet (jet) é-ti-quet-te (etiquette)
dé-cé-dé (deceased) ef-fet (effect) é-lec-tri-ci-té (electricity)
dé-mé-ri-té (proved
unworthy)
er-got (sprocket) des-hé-ri-té (disinherited)
The e of the feminine and / or the s of the plural do not in uence the rules of
accentuation, and so every open syllable in the plural will keep its accent before either
of these letters: une clé (key), des clés; chanté, chantés, chantée, chantées (sung). By
analogy, masculine words ending in -ée act similarly e.g. le musée (museum).
When e is followed by two consonants or a double consonant, it never uses an accent
because the syllable is always closed:
un ef-fet (effect), bel-li-gé-rant (belligerant), bes-tial (brutish)
When e is followed by -x it never uses an accent since x counts as two consonants, /gz/
or /ks/:
exécuter (to carry out), exister (to exist), exact (exact)
When e is followed by a consonant + r or l (-cr, -gr, -cl, -gl, -tr, etc.), it always uses an
accent because the syllable break is made before these consonants, not between them:
é-gli-se (church), é-cri-tu-re (handwriting).
But if r- or l- precedes the consonant (-rb-, lg, -rt, etc.) it will not use an accent; the
syllable break is made between r- or l- and the consonant, and so the syllable will be
closed: her-be (grass), el-lip-se (ellipse), er-go-no-mie (ergonomics), etc.
Summary of the new orthographic rules of 1990
(Recti cations orthographiques)
In 1990 the Académie française issued new, simpli ed, rules for spelling. These new rules
are not mandatory but their use is recommended.
1 Compound numbers are systematically linked by hyphens:
vingt-et-un, deux-cent-dix-huit (formerly: vingt et un, deux cents dix-huit), vingt-et-unième.
2 In compound nouns composed of verb + noun (garde-boue, pèse-lettre), or preposition
+ noun (après-midi, sans-abri), the second element can no longer have a plural ‘s’ when
singular (e.g. un porte-avions) and can no longer have the singular form when plural
(e.g. des après-midi).
un porte-avion, des porte-avions; un compte-goutte, des compte-gouttes; un après-midi, des
après-midis
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
389
3 The grave accent is used rather than the acute accent on a certain number of words
(in order to regularize their spelling), in the future and conditional of verbs which
are conjugated like céder:
évènement, règlementaire, il cèdera, ils règleraient (previously événement, réglementaire, il
cédera, ils régleraient).
4 The circum ex accent disappears on i and u because it cannot be justi ed
phonetically:
cout; entrainer, nous entrainons; il parait (previously coût, entraîner, entraînons, paraît)
But it is kept on:
verb endings of the simple past and the subjunctive:
qu’elle fût, qu’il nît, nous reçûmes, vous prîtes
the ve cases of masculine singular adjectives which run the risk of ambiguity with
homophones:
dû, mûr and sûr, jeûne(s) and the forms of croitre which might otherwise be confused
with forms of croire (je croîs, tu croîs, etc.)
5 Verbs ending in -eler or -eter are conjugated like peler or acheter. Derivatives of these
verbs follow suit:
j’amoncèle, amoncèlement, tu époussèteras (previously j’amoncelle, amoncellement)
Exceptions
appeler, jeter and their derivatives, including interpeler.
6 Words borrowed from foreign languages form their plural in the same way as French
words and use accents according to the rules which apply to French words:
des matchs, des révolvers (previously des matches, des revolvers)
7 A certain number of words which previously consisted of two words linked by a
hyphen become one word. This is applied in particular to compound words
beginning with contr(e)- and entr(e)-, with extra-, infra-, intra-, ultra-, with hydro-, socio-,
agro-, onomatopaeic words and words of foreign origin: Contrepouvoir, entretemps,
tictac, weekend, portemonnaie (previously Contre-pouvoir, entre-temps, tic-tac, week-end,
porte-monnaie).
8 Words ending in -olle and verbs ending in -otter and their derivatives are written
with only one consonant respectively:
corole, frisoter (corolle, frisotter)
Exceptions
colle, folle, molle and words of the same family as a noun ending in -otte (e.g. botter,
from botte).
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
390
9 The diaresis is moved to the letter u in -güe- and -güi- (previously -guë- and -guï -),
and is added to u in a few words ending in -geure, like the verb arguer:
aigüe, ambigüe; ambigüité; argüer (previously: aiguë, ambiguë, ambiguïté, arguer)
10 The past participle of laisser, like that of faire, is invariable when followed by an
in nitive:
Je les ai laissé partir (previously Je les ai laissés partir).
Elle s’est laissé prendre par la police (previously Elle s’est laissée prendre par la police).
A number of anomalies have been removed:
assoir, sursoir, etc. (formerly asseoir, surseoir, etc.)
boursouf er, boursouf ure (boursou er, boursou ure)
charriot (chariot)
combattif, combattivité (combatif, etc.)
dissout, dissoute (dissous, dissoute)
imbécilité (imbécillité)
interpeler (interpeller)
lunetier (lunettier)
ognon (oignon)
persif age (persi age)
relai (relais)
saccarine (saccharine)
Accents are placed on a few words where they had previously been omitted, or whose
pronunciation has changed: e.g. papèterie (papeterie).
Words which were formerly written -illier, where the i which follows the consonant is
not sounded, are written -iller : joailler (joaillier), serpillère (serpillière).
Exception
the names of trees and bushes, e.g. groseiller (redcurrant bush).
Finally, where there is a clash in usage, priority is given to:
the most gallicized form (leadeur, not leader)
the form without a circum ex accent (allo, not allô)
the regular plural form
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
391
The Phonetic Alphabet in French
Vowels
/a/ image, il parla
/ɑ/
vase, âne
/e/ été, aimer
/ɛ/
bête, il aime, Angleterre
/i/ ami, ville
/ɔ/
idiote, Paul, donne
/o/ beau, idiot, pôle
/u/ tout, pour, coût
/y/ vue, connu
/œ/ peuple, œuf, jeune
/ø/ œufs, deux, vieux
/ə/
me, Angleterre
/ɛ
/
pain, vin
/ɑ /
camp, anglais, en
/ɔ
/
rond, mon, ils font
/œ
/
un, aucun, brun
Semi-vowels (or semi-consonants)
/j/ yeux, griller, mieux
/ɥ/
lui, huit, nuit
/w/ weekend, ouest, loi
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
392
Consonants
/b/ bu, abbé
/p/ papa
/d/ doré
/t/ tête
/g/ gala, garder
/k/ coq, quaker, kilo
/f/ fermer, philosophie
/v/ vallée, vivre
/s/ Suède, façon
/z/ zèbre, réseau
/ʒ/
Japon, jour
/ʃ/
chaque, chic
/l/ le, labour
/
R/ robot, rare
/m/ macadam, maman
/n/ Naples, naturel
/ɲ/
ligne, gagner
393
VERB TABLES
All French verbs belong to one of three groups, whose endings are -er (group 1), -ir
(group 2) and either -re, -oir or -ir (group 3). Note that verbs with -ir endings may be
found in groups 2 (e.g. nir) and 3 (e.g. sortir) and that one -er verb, aller, belongs to
group 3.
Regular verbs are those that follow a predictable model in all forms of the verb. Irregular
verbs exhibit changes which are not predictable; the forms of irregular verbs should be
learned.
Each verb consists of two parts, a radical (or stem) which imparts the meaning of the
verb and an ending, which is variable according to person, tense and mood. For example,
in the in nitive of the verb of the group 1 chanter, the radical is chant- and the ending -er
(see 9.2.1). Regular verbs have one radical only, which is invariable; irregular verbs may
have several radicals, which can be seen in the different forms taken by the verb.
1. -er group
Chanter (to sing)
Indicative
Present Imperfect Simple past Future
Je / j’ chante chantais chantai chanterai
Tu chantes chantais chantas chanteras
Il / elle chante chantait chanta chantera
Nous chantons nous chantions chantâmes chanterons
Vous chantez vous chantiez chantâtes chanterez
Ils / elles chantent chantaient chantèrent chanteront
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
394
Compound
future
Conditional Compound
conditional, rst
form
Compound
conditional,
second form
Je / j’ aurai chanté chanterais aurais chanté eusse chanté
Tu auras chanté chanterais aurais chanté eusses chanté
Il / elle aura chanté chanterait aurait chanté eût chanté
Nous aurons chanté chanterions aurions chanté eussions chanté
Vous aurez chanté chanteriez auriez chanté eussiez chanté
Ils / elles auront chanté chanteraient auraient chanté eussent chanté
Compound past Pluperfect Past anterior
Je / j’ ai chanté avais chanté eus chanté
Tu as chanté avais chanté eus chanté
Il / elle a chanté avait chanté eut chanté
Nous avons chanté avions chanté eûmes chanté
Vous avez chanté aviez chanté eûtes chanté
Ils / elles ont chanté avaient chanté eurent chanté
Subjunctive
Present Compound
past
Imperfect Pluperfect
Que Je / j’ chante aie chanté chantasse eusse chanté
Que Tu chantes aies chanté chantasses eusses chanté
Qu’ Il / elle chante ait chanté chantât eût chanté
Que Nous chantions ayons chanté chantassions eussions chanté
Que Vous chantiez ayez chanté chantassiez eussiez chanté
Qu’ Ils / elles chantent aient chanté chantassent eussent chanté
VERB TABLES
VERB TABLES
395
Imperative
Present Past
(Tu) chante ! aie chanté !
(Nous) chantons ! ayons chanté !
(Vous) chantez ! ayez chanté !
Participle
Present Past
chantant chanté
In nitive
In nitive Past in nitive
chanter avoir chanté
2. -ir group
Bâtir (to build)
Indicative
Present Imperfect Simple past Future
Je / j’ bâtis bâtissais bâtis bâtirai
Tu bâtis bâtissais bâtis bâtiras
Il / elle bâtit bâtissait bâtit bâtira
Nous bâtissons bâtissions bâtîmes bâtirons
Vous bâtissez bâtissiez bâtîtes bâtirez
Ils / elles bâtissent bâtissaient bâtirent bâtiront
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
396
Compound
future
Conditional Compound
conditional, rst
form
Compound
conditional,
second form
Je / j’ aurai bâti bâtirais aurais bâti eusse bâti
Tu auras bâti bâtirais aurais bâti eusses bâti
Il / elle aura bâti bâtirait aurait bâti eût bâti
Nous aurons bâti bâtirions aurions bâti eussions bâti
Vous aurez bâti bâtiriez auriez bâti eussiez bâti
Ils / elles auront bâti bâtiraient auraient bâti eussent bâti
Compound past Pluperfect Past anterior
Je / j’ ai bâti avais bâti eus bâti
Tu as bâti avais bâti eus bâti
Il / elle a bâti avait bâti eut bâti
Nous avons bâti avions bâti eûmes bâti
Vous avez bâti aviez bâti eûtes bâti
Ils / elles ont bâti avaient bâti eurent bâti
Subjunctive
Present Compound
past
Imperfect Pluperfect
Que Je / j’ bâtisse aie bâti bâtisse eusse bâti
Que Tu bâtisses aies bâti bâtisses eusses bâti
Qu’ Il / elle bâtisse ait bâti bâtît eût bâti
Que Nous bâtissions ayons bâti bâtissions eussions bâti
Que Vous bâtissiez ayez bâti bâtissiez eussiez bâti
Qu’ Ils / elles bâtissent aient bâti bâtissent eussent bâti
VERB TABLES
VERB TABLES
397
Imperative
Present Past
(Tu) bâtis ! aie bâti !
(Nous) bâtissons ! ayons bâti !
(Vous) bâtissez ! ayez bâti !
Participle
Present Past
bâtissant bâti
In nitive
In nitive Past in nitive
bâtir avoir bâti
3. -re group (also -oir and some verbs ending
in -ir)
Attendre (to wait for)
Indicative
Present Imperfect Simple past Future
Je / j’ attends attendais attendis attendrai
Tu attends attendais attendis attendras
Il / elle attend attendait attendit attendra
Nous attendons attendions attendîmes attendrons
Vous attendez attendiez attendîtes attendrez
Ils / elles attendent attendaient attendirent attendront
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
398
Compound
future
Conditional Compound
conditional, rst
form
Compound
conditional,
second form
Je / j’ aurai attendu attendrais aurais attendu eusse attendu
Tu auras attendu attendrais aurais attendu eusses attendu
Il / elle aura attendu attendrait aurait attendu eût attendu
Nous aurons attendu attendrions aurions attendu eussions attendu
Vous aurez attendu attendriez auriez attendu eussiez attendu
Ils / elles auront attendu attendraient auraient attendu eussent attendu
Compound past Pluperfect Past anterior
Je / j’ ai attendu avais attendu eus attendu
Tu as attendu avais attendu eus attendu
Il / elle a attendu avait attendu eut attendu
Nous avons attendu avions attendu eûmes attendu
Vous avez attendu aviez attendu eûtes attendu
Ils / elles ont attendu avaient attendu eurent attendu
Subjunctive
Present Compound
past
Imperfect Pluperfect
Que Je / j’ attende aie attendu attendisse eusse attendu
Que Tu attendes aies attendu attendisses eusses attendu
Qu’ Il / elle attende ait attendu attendît eût attendu
Que Nous attendions ayons attendu attendissions eussions attendu
Que Vous attendiez ayez attendu vous attendissiez eussiez attendu
Qu’ Ils / elles attendent aient attendu attendissent eussent attendu
VERB TABLES
VERB TABLES
399
Imperative
Present Past
(Tu) attends ! aie attendu !
(Nous) attendons ! ayons attendu !
(Vous) attendez ! ayez attendu !
Participle
Present Past
attendant attendu
In nitive
In nitive Past in nitive
attendre avoir attendu
IRREGULAR VERBS
Note: Where derivatives or similar verbs are listed, these verbs are conjugated in the
same way.
Avoir (to have)
Avoir is conjugated using 4 different radicals: a(i), av-, eu-, au.
Avoir is the only group 3 verb which does not end in -s in the rst person singular of
the present indicative.
Note the third person plural of the present indicative: ils ont.
avoir has an irregular ending in the present subjunctive: que j’aie, etc.
the imperative of avoir, aie !, etc., is formed from the present subjunctive and
not the in nitive.
the present participle, ayant, is not formed from the rst person plural of the present
indicative.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
400
avoir
Present
indicative
Imperfect Future Simple
past
Present
subjunctive
Imperative
J’ ai avais aurai eus aie
Tu as avais auras eus aies aie !
Il / elle a avait aura eut ait
Nous avons avions aurons eûmes ayons ayons !
Vous avez aviez aurez eûtes ayez ayez !
Ils / elles ont avaient auront eurent aient
Present participle
ayant
Past participle
eu
Être (to be)
être is conjugated using 6 different radicals: s-, e-, ét-, f-, soi- sui-.
Note the irregular rst, second and third persons plural of the present indicative: nous
sommes, vous êtes, ils sont.
the imperative of être, sois ! etc., is formed from the present subjunctive and not the
in nitive.
the present participle, étant, is not formed from the rst person plural of the present
indicative.
despite being a group 3 verb, être forms its past participle in -é: été.
être
Present
indicative
Imperfect Future Simple
past
Present
subjunctive
Imperative
Je suis étais serai fus sois
Tu es étais seras fus sois sois !
Il / elle est était sera fut soit
Nous sommes étions serons fûmes soyons soyons !
Vous êtes étiez serez fûtes soyez soyez !
Ils / elles sont étaient seront furent soient
Present participle
étant
Past participle
été
VERB TABLES
VERB TABLES
401
Acheter (to buy)
Similar verbs: amener (to take), mener (to take, lead), emmener (to take [away]), promener
(to take out), lever (to raise), enlever (to remove), geler (to freeze), peser (to weigh)
In the present indicative and present subjunctive, the e of the penultimate of group 1
verbs becomes è in all persons except nous and vous.
acheter Present
indicative
Present
subjunctive
J’ achète achète
Tu achètes achètes
Il / elle achète achète
Nous achetons achetions
Vous achetez achetiez
Ils / elles achètent achètent
Present participle
achetant
Past participle
acheté
Aller (to go)
aller is an irregular verb belonging to group 3. It is the only group 3 verb to form the
ending of the simple past with the letter -a, like verbs of the rst group.
aller is conjugated using 3 different radicals: v-, ir-, all-.
Note the third person plural of the present indicative: ils vont.
Despite being a group 3 verb its past participle ends in -é : allé.
aller Present
indicative
Future Simple
Past
Present
subjunctive
Imperative
Je / j’ vais irai allai aille va !
Tu vas iras allas ailles
Il / elle va ira alla aille
Nous allons irons allâmes allions allons !
Vous allez irez allâtes alliez allez !
Ils / elles vont iront allèrent aillent
Past participle
allant
Past participle
allé
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
402
Boire (to drink)
Boire is conjugated with three different radicals: boi-, buv- and b-.
boire Present indicative
Je bois
Tu bois
Il / elle boit
Nous buvons
Vous buvez
Ils / elles boivent
Present participle
buvant
Past participle
bu
Conduire (to lead, drive)
Similar verbs: construire (to build), luire (to shine), nuire (to harm)
The past participles of luire and nuire are lui and nui respectively; they are invariable.
The simple past of luire is je luis … nous luîmes … ils luirent.
conduire Present indicative
Je
conduis
Tu conduis
Il / elle conduit
Nous conduisons
Vous conduisez
Ils / elles conduisent
Present participle
conduisant
Past participle
conduit
VERB TABLES
VERB TABLES
403
Connaître (to know)
Similar verbs: apparaître (to appear), croître (to grow)
Verbs ending in -aître and -oître have a circum ex accent on the i when it precedes a t
(see Appendix pp. 381–92).
These verbs are conjugated like verbs ending in -ir (e.g. nir), with the in x -iss-.
connaître Present indicative
Je connais
Tu connais
Il / elle connaît
Nous connaissons
Vous connaissez
Ils / elles connaissent
Present participle
connaissant
Past participle
connu
Craindre (to fear)
Similar verbs: atteindre (to achieve, reach), dissoudre (to dissolve), éteindre (to put out),
joindre (to attach, get hold of), peindre (to paint), résoudre (to solve)
These verbs keep the d in the future and conditional tenses only.
craindre Present
indicative
Future
Je crains craindrai
Tu crains craindras
Il / elle craint craindra
Nous craignons craindrons
Vous craignez craindrez
Ils / elles craignent craindront
Present participle
craignant
Past participle
craint
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
404
Croire (to believe)
The i in croire becomes a y before a and o, and before i in the imperfect indicative and
the present subjunctive.
croire Present
indicative
Imperfect Present
subjunctive
Je crois croyais croie
Tu crois croyais croies
Il / elle croit croyait croie
Nous croyons croyions croyions
Vous croyez croyiez croyiez
Ils / elles croient croyaient croient
Present participle
croyant
Past participle
cru
Courir (to run)
Derivatives: accourir (to run up), concourir (to compete), discourir (to hold forth), encourir (to
incur), parcourir (to travel), recourir (to have recourse), secourir (to help)
These verbs form their future and conditional by doubling the r.
courir Future Conditional
Je courrai courrais
Tu courras courrais
Il / elle courra courrait
Nous courrons courrions
Vous
courrez courriez
Ils / elles courront courraient
Devoir (must, to have to)
Derivative: redevoir (to owe)
These verbs have a circum ex accent in the past participle in the masculine singular
only: dû, redû.
They lose -ev- in the three singular persons of the present indicative, the past simple,
the imperfect subjunctive, the past participle, and the imperative singular.
VERB TABLES
VERB TABLES
405
Note that these verbs are rarely used in the imperative.
devoir
Present
indicative
Future Past
simple
Imperfect
subjunctive
Imperative
Je dois devrai dus dusse
Tu dois devras dus dusses dois !
Il / elle doit devra dut dût
Nous devons devrons dûmes dussions
Vous devez devrez dûtes dussiez
Ils / elles doivent devront durent dussent
Present participle
devant
Past participle
dû, dus, due, dues
Dire (to say)
Derivatives: redire (to repeat), contredire (to contradict), dédire (to retract), interdire (to
ban), maudire (to curse), médire (to speak ill of), prédire (to predict)
The second person plural form in the present tense of dire and redire is dites and redites
respectively, but in the derivatives contredire, dédire, interdire, maudire, médire and prédire
this form is -disez, e.g. Vous me contredisez, etc.
dire Present indicative
Je dis
Tu dis
Il / elle dit
Nous disons
Vous dites
Ils / elles disent
Present participle
disant
Past participle
dit
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
406
Écrire (to write)
Note the irregular past participle of écrire : écrit.
écrire Present indicative
J’ écris
Tu écris
Il / elle écrit
Nous écrivons
Vous écrivez
Ils / elles écrivent
Present participle
écrivant
Past participle
écrit
Espérer (to hope)
Similar verbs: céder (to give up), compléter (to complete), considérer (to consider), posséder
(to possess), préférer (to prefer), répéter (to repeat)
In the present indicative and present subjunctive, the é of the penultimate syllable
become è in all persons except nous and vous.
espérer Present indicative Present
subjunctive
J’ espère espère
Tu espères espères
Il / elle espère espère
Nous espérons espérions
Vous espérez espériez
Ils / elles espère espèrent
Present participle
espérant
Past participle
espéré
VERB TABLES
VERB TABLES
407
Faire (to do, make)
Derivatives : contrefaire (to forge), défaire (to undo), refaire (to redo), satisfaire (to satisfy),
surfaire (to overrate)
Faire is conjugated using 3 different radicals: fai-, f(i)(a)-, fe-.
Note the endings of the second and third persons plural of the present indicative: vous
faites, ils font.
Faire changes its radical in the subjunctive.
faire
Present
indicative
Future Simple past Present
subjunctive
Je fais ferai s fasse
Tu fais feras s fasses
Il / elle fait fera t fasse
Nous faisons ferons fîmes fassions
Vous faites ferez fîtes fassiez
Ils / elles font feront rent fassent
Present participle
faisant
Past participle
fait
Lire (to read)
Derivative: élire (to elect)
lire Present indicative
Je lis
Tu lis
Il / elle lit
Nous lisons
Vous lisez
Ils / elles lisent
Present participle
lisant
Past participle
lu
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
408
Manger (to eat)
Similar verbs: changer (to change), nager (to swim), voyager (to travel), loger (to lodge),
partager (to share), ranger (to tidy)
Verbs whose in nitive ends in -ger keep the e before o or a.
manger Present
indicative
Imperfect Simple past Imperfect
subjunctive
Present
participle
Je mangeais mangeai mangeasse mangeant
Nous mangeons
Mettre (to put)
Derivatives: transmettre (to transmit), soumettre (to subdue), permettre (to permit), admettre
(to admit)
These verbs are conjugated using 2 radicals: met(t), m-.
They lose one t in the three singular persons of the present indicative.
Mettre Present
indicative
Imperfect Simple Past Imperative
Je mets mettais mis
Tu mets mettais mis mets !
Il / elle met mettait mit
Nous mettons mettions mîmes mettons !
Vous
mettez mettiez mîtes mettez !
Ils / elles mettent mettaient mirent
Present participle
mettant
Past participle
mis
Mourir (to die)
This verb forms its future and conditional by doubling the r.
In the singular persons of the present indicative and present subjunctive, -ou- changes
into -eu-.
Note the past participle mort.
VERB TABLES
VERB TABLES
409
mourir Present
indicative
Future Conditional Present
subjunctive
Je meurs mourrai
mourrais
meure
Tu meurs mourras
mourrais
meures
Il / elle meurt mourra
mourrait
meure
Nous mourons mourrons
mourrions
mourions
Vous mourez mourrez
mourriez
mouriez
Ils / elles meurent mourront
mourraient
meurent
Present participle
mourant
Past participle
mort
Naître (to be born)
the past participle of naître, despite it being a verb of group 3, ends in-é : né.
naître has a circum ex accent on the i when it precedes a t (see Appendix pp. 381–92).
naître Present indicative
Je nais
Tu nais
Il / elle naît
Nous naissons
Vous naissez
Ils / elles naissent
Present participle
naissant
Past participle
né
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
410
Ouvrir (to open)
Similar verbs: couvrir (to cover), offrir, (to offer), souffrir (to suffer), assaillir (to attack),
cueillir (to pick), tressaillir (to quiver, start) and their derivatives.
Although these verbs belong to group 3 (mostly -re), they are conjugated like verbs in
group 1 (-er) in the present indicative, the present subjunctive and the imperative.
The past participles of ouvrir, couvrir, offrir, souffrir end in -ert (ouvert, etc.), whereas the
past participles of verbs ending in -llir is -i: cueilli, etc.
ouvrir Present
indicative
Present
subjunctive
Imperative
J’ ouvre ouvre
Tu ouvres ouvres ouvre !
Il / elle ouvre ouvre
Nous ouvrons ouvrions ouvrons !
Vous ouvrez ouvriez ouvrez !
Ils / elles ouvrent ouvrent
Present participle
ouvrant
Past participle
ouvert
Partir (to depart)
Similar verbs: sentir (to feel), mentir (to lie), se repentir (to repent), sortir (to go out), dormir
(to sleep)
partir Present indicative
Je pars
Tu pars
Il / elle part
Nous partons
Vous partez
Ils / elles partent
Present participle
partant
Past participle
parti
VERB TABLES
VERB TABLES
411
Plaire (to please)
Derivative: déplaire (to displease)
Similar verb : taire (to silence)
These verbs are conjugated in the same way, but note that plaire and déplaire have a
circum ex accent on the third person singular of the present indicative (see Appendix
pp. 381–92).
plaire taire
Je plais tais
Il / elle
plaît tait
nous
plaisons taisons
Prendre (to take)
Derivatives: apprendre (to learn), comprendre (to understand), surprendre (to surprise)
These verbs have regular endings but note the changes in the radical: prend-, pren-,
prenn-, pri-.
Prendre Present
indicative
Imperfect Simple
past
Present
subjunctive
Imperative
Je prends prenais pris prenne
Tu prends prenais pris prennes prends !
Il / elle prend prenait prit prenne
Nous prenons prenions prîmes prenions prenons !
Vous prenez preniez prîtes preniez prenez !
Ils / elles prennent prenaient prirent prennent
Present participle
prenant
Past participle
pris
Pouvoir (can, to be able)
The ending -s is replaced by -x in the rst two persons of the present indicative.
The future and conditional of pouvoir are formed with a double r.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
412
pouvoir Present Future Conditional
Je peux pourrai pourrais
Tu peux pourras pourrais
Il / elle peut pourra pourrait
Nous pouvons pourrons pourrions
Vous pouvez pourrez pourriez
Ils / elles peuvent pourront pourraient
Present participle
pouvant
Past participle
pu
Recevoir (to receive)
Similar verbs: apercevoir (to catch sight of), décevoir (to disappoint), percevoir (to perceive)
These verbs have a cedilla under the c before o and u.
recevoir Present
Je reçois
Tu reçois
Il / elle reçoit
Nous recevons
Vous recevez
Ils / elles reçoivent
Present participle
recevant
Past participle
reçu
VERB TABLES
VERB TABLES
413
Rire (to laugh)
Derivative: sourire (to smile)
Rire has two is in the rst two persons plural of the imperfect indicative and the
present subjunctive.
rire Present indicative Imperfect Present subjunctive
Je ris riais rie
Nous rions
riions
riions
Vous riez riiez riiez
Savoir (to know)
Savoir is irregular in the indicative, the subjunctive, the imperative and the participles.
The present participle, sachant, is not formed from the rst person plural of the present
indicative.
savoir Present
indicative
Future Simple
past
Present
subjunctive
Imperative
Je sais saurai sus sache sache !
Tu sais sauras sus saches
Il / elle sait saura sut sache
Nous savons saurons sûmes sachions sachons !
Vous savez saurez sûtes sachiez sachez !
Ils / elles savent sauront surent sachent
Present participle
sachant
Past participle
su
Suivre (to follow)
Derivatives: poursuivre (to pursue), s’ensuivre (to ensue)
These verbs lose the v in the rst three persons of the present indicative and the
imperative singular.
S’ensuivre is conjugated in the third person singular and plural only: il s’est ensuivi / ils
s’ensuivent.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
414
suivre Present indicative
Je suis
Tu suis
Il / elle suit
Nous suivons
Vous suivez
Ils / elles suivent
Present participle
suivant
Past participle
suivi
Vaincre (to defeat)
Derivative: convaincre (to convince)
These verbs have a c in the singular of the present indicative: il vainc. The c changes
into qu before a vowel.
vaincre Present
indicative
Simple past Future Imperative
Je vaincs vainquis vaincrai
Tu vaincs vainquis vaincras vaincs !
Il / elle vainc vainquit vaincra
Nous vainquons vainquîmes vaincrons vainquons !
Vous vainquez vainquîtes vaincrez vainquez !
Ils / elles vainquent vainquirent vaincront
Present participle
vainquant
Past participle
vaincu
Valoir (to be worth)
Derivatives: équivaloir (to be the equivalent of), prévaloir (to prevail), revaloir (to get even
with)
valoir has 4 different radicals: val-, vau-, vaud- in the future and conditional; vaill- in
the three singular persons of the present subjunctive.
The ending -s is replaced by -x in the rst two persons of the present indicative.
In the present subjunctive prévaloir (to prevail) is que je prévale.
VERB TABLES
VERB TABLES
415
Falloir (to be necessary) is conjugated like valoir, but it is only used impersonally: il faut,
qu’il faille, il a fallu.
valoir Present
indicative
Future Imperfect Present
subjunctive
Je vaux vaudrai valais vaille
Tu vaux vaudras valais vailles
Il / elle vaut vaudra valait vaille
Nous valons vaudrons valions valions
Vous valez vaudrez valiez valiez
Ils / elles valent vaudront valaient vaillent
Present participle
valant
Past participle
valu
Venir (to come)
Derivatives: revenir (to come back), devenir (to become), convenir (to suit), intervenir (to
intervene), se souvenir (to remember)
Similar verbs: appartenir (to belong), mantenir (to maintain), obtenir (to obtain), retenir (to
keep), soutenir (to support), tenir (to hold)
venir has 4 different radicals: vien-, ven-, vin-, viendr-.
A d is inserted in the future form of these verbs.
venir Present indicative Future Simple past
Je viens viendrai vins
Tu viens viendra vins
Il / elle vient viendras vint
Nous venons viendrons vînmes
Vous venez viendrez vîntes
Ils / elles viennent viendront vinrent
Present participle
venant
Past participle
venu
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
416
Vivre (to live)
Note the irregular past participle of vivre : vécu.
vivre Present indicative
Je vis
Tu vis
Il / elle vit
Nous vivons
Vous vivez
Ils / elles vivent
Present participle
vivant
Past participle
vécu
Voir (to see)
Derivatives: entrevoir (to glimpse), revoir (to see again), prévoir (to foresee)
These verbs form their future and conditional by doubling the r.
Exception
prévoir: je prévoirai and je prévoirais respectively.
voir Present indicative Future Conditional
Je vois verrai verrais
Tu vois verras verrais
Il / elle voit verra verrait
Nous voyons verrons verrions
Vous voyez verrez verriez
Ils / elles voient verront verraient
Present participle
voyant
Past participle
vu
VERB TABLES
VERB TABLES
417
Vouloir (to wish, want)
The ending -s is replaced by -x in the rst two persons of the present indicative.
The radical voul- becomes voudr- in the future and conditional tenses, veuill- in the
present subjunctive except the nous and vous forms, and in the second persons singular
and plural imperative.
Vouloir Present
indicative
Future Present
subjunctive
imperative
Je veux voudrai veuille
Tu veux voudras veuilles veuille !
Il / elle veut voudra veuille
Nous voulons voudrons voulions voulons !
Vous voulez voudrez vouliez veuillez !
Ils / elles veulent voudront veuillent
Present participle
voulant
Past participle
voulu
418
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
Chapter 1 Nouns
1 1. une agnelle 2. un ami 3. une conseillère 4. une poule 5. le directeur 6. une élève
7. une épicière 8. le fermier 9. ma grand-mère 10. cet étalon 11. un marchand
12. mon père 13. sa tante 14. une paysanne 15. une pharmacienne 16. son poulain
17. ton secrétaire 18. un serveur 19. une vendeuse 20. son voisin
2 1. basketteur 2. gérante de société 3. mathématicien 4. attachée de presse 5. diplomate
6. avocate 7. aviateur 8. une enfant 9. bistrotier 10. poétesse
3 Possible answers 1. un thé 2. une bière 3. verre de cognac 4. une tasse de chocolat chaud
5. un sucre 6. de la dinde 7. des cornichons 8. plus de frites 9. persil 10. plus d’huile sur sa
côte de porc
4
a) Animate
nouns which do
not differentiate
between male
and female
b) Nouns which
have only one
form for
masculine and
feminine
c) Animate
nouns having
different words
for male and
female
d) Nouns
whose feminine
form is a
modi cation of
the masculine
form
e) Homonyms
whose meaning
varies according
to the gender
crocodile,
araignée,
sentinelle,
recrue,
victime,
mannequin,
perroquet,
altesse
acrobate,
architecte,
artiste,
camarade,
concierge, élève,
enfant,
secrétaire,
stagiaire,
pianiste,
Russe
coq, vache,
brebis,
grand-père,
oncle, nièce,
jument, chèvre,
roi
chat, in rmière,
tigre, ami,
danseur, Anglais,
Espagnole,
Indienne,
boulanger
moule, livre,
voile, poste,
pendule, critique,
parallèle,
mémoire, somme
5 Il y a eu 3 incidents en deux après-midis dans 3 villes des environs. J’ai pu lire tous les
détails dans les journaux locaux ce matin. Comme c’était l’époque des festivals, de
nombreux bus transportaient les festivaliers à travers la ville. De jeunes cyclistes
nu-tête, sur des vélos aux pneus usés, jouaient à des jeux imprudents, comme par
exemple faire des demi-tours brusques sur la chaussée. Soudain, à 50 m d’ici un bus t
irruption, et en moins de 2 sec. il alla heurter légèrement l’un des jeunes avec son
rétroviseur, au niveau des yeux et le t tomber sur les genoux. Heureusement le jeune
quitte pour quelques éra ures et quelques bleus. Il y eut plus de peur que de mal.
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
419
Chapter 2 Determiners
1 1. cette 2. ce … cette 3. ces … cette 4. ces … ce 5. ces … ces 6. cette 7. Ce 8. cette
9. ce 10. Cette
2 1. Ma 2. Mes 3. Sa / Leur 4. mon 5. Ma 6. sa … mon 7. Mon 8. Nos 9. Notre … mon 10.
votre
3 1. ma / la …une 2. Le …ma … le 3. de l’ 4. une / ma … le … une 5. de la
6. l’ … une … le 7. Une …au … la …la … des 8. de l’…de la … du … des
9. La ….les … l’ 10. du … du … mon … les 11. Ce … au …. un … mon
4 1. les … mon 2. Son …. le 3. Mon … ses … de 4. sa … l’
5. Une … un …un … ce … ces … mon 6. une … l’ … cette … l’… mon
7. les … au … de l’… de la 8. des … un / le … du … des … des … de la … du … ma …
aux 9. Cette … mon … la 10. l’… mon … de … les … les
5 Que faut-il pour fabriquer du papier à la maison?
- des bres de cellulose : du papier journal trempé dans de l’eau fera l’affaire.
- un mortier et un pilon, pour broyer le papier journal mouillé. On obtient ainsi de la
pâte à papier.
- une cuvette carrée ou rectangulaire remplie d’eau dans laquelle on mettra la pâte à
papier. Remuer a n de séparer les bres entre elles.
- un tamis avec des trous très ns que l’on placera au fond de la cuvette.
- un cadre que l’on plongera dans le mélange d’eau et de pâte à papier (4 petites planches
ou un cintre métallique feront l’affaire).
- une planche pour aplanir la pâte une fois le cadre sorti de l’eau.
- un sèche-cheveu pour sécher la feuille ainsi obtenue.
Un geste pour protéger la planète. Je réutilise le papier en écrivant sur les deux côtés
des feuilles.
Chapter 3 Pronouns
1 1. Elle joue sur la plage.
2. Ses parents la surveillent.
3. De temps en temps les parents jouent avec elle.
4. La famille y passe l’été. Elle en part à l’automne.
5. Les parents lui ont offert un petit bateau gon able.
6. Ils le lui montrent.
7. Il y fait monter l’enfant.
8. Elle ne veut pas les garder.
9. « Donne-les-lui », disent-ils.
10. Elle les ôte. Puis elle les leur tend.
2 1. leur 2. lui 3. leur 4. en 5. en 6. y 7. les 8. leur 9. les 10. se
3 1. vous 2. Moi 3. elle 4. lui 5. Nous 6. Eux 7. Elles 8. toi 9. moi 10. moi
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
420
4 1. le tien 2. la sienne 3. la leur 4. les leurs 5. des siens 6. des vôtres 7. les siennes
8. la nôtre 9. le mien 10. le sien
5 1. Cette femme, je la vois tous les jours.
2. Quand je passe devant elle, elle ne me voit pas.
3. Une fois je l’ai saluée.
4. “Vous me connaissez?” me dit-il.
5. Je vous ai vu plusieurs fois avec vos chiens.
6. Vous les promenez souvent.
7. Je leur ai donné un sucre une fois.
8. Je n’ai pas peur d’elles.
9. Elles sont jeunes, elles se poursuivent toujours.
10. “Oui, nous nous amusons bien toutes les trois”.
Chapter 4 Adjectives
1 1. turque … iranienne 2. favorite … meilleure 3. belle … multicolores 4. radieuse
5. patiente … petits enfants 6. jeune … courte 7. vieille 8. longues … seule 9. brève
10. vert … clair … roses … épaisse … auburn
2 1. Seule / femme
(only) one woman Une seule femme
A lonely woman Une femme seule
2. Jeunes / mariés
Newly married (couple) Des jeunes mariés
Young married people Des mariés jeunes
3. Belle / famille
A beautiful family Une famille belle
In-law family Une belle-famille
4. Sale / tête
A nasty face Une sale tête
A dirty face Un tête sale
5. Propre / voiture
His / her clean car Sa voiture propre
His / her own car Sa propre voiture
6. Cher / bijou
My beloved jewel Mon cher bijou
My expensive jewel Mon bijou cher
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
421
7. Ancienne / usine
a former factory Une ancienne usine
An old (in age) factory Une usine ancienne
8. Sacré / endroit
A (hell of a) place Un sacré endroit
A holy place Un endroit sacré
9. Curieux / enfant
A nosy / inquisitive child Un enfant curieux
A strange child Un curieux enfant
10. Pauvre / homme
The poor man ! Le pauvre homme !
A poor (not wealthy) man Un homme pauvre
3 1. marron … noirs 2. roses … assorties 3. bleu marine 4. nouvelles … jeunes … bien
5.agressif 6. demi 7. bon marché 8. nu … nus 9. cool … sexy 10. bleu clair
4
Masculine singular Masculine plural Feminine singular Feminine plural
blanc blancs blanche blanches
doux doux douce douces
discret discrets discrète discrètes
amer amers amère amères
délicat délicats délicate délicates
vif vifs vive vives
bas bas basse basses
frais frais fraîche fraîches
bref brefs brève brèves
er ers ère ères
5 Examples of possible answers:
1. Ma meilleure amie est assez jolie.
2. Elle a une apparence plutôt athlétique.
3. Sa tête est ronde mais pas jouf ue.
4. Ses yeux, en amande, sont bleu clair.
5. Elle a les cheveux roux et légèrement frisés.
6. Ses bras sont longs et un peu musclés.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
422
7. Elle n’aime pas vraiment les peaux tatouées.
8. Elle est d’humeur assez calme mais dynamique.
9. Elle est généreuse et à la fois posée et combative.
10. Mais parfois elle semble tellement froide, même indifférente.
Chapter 5 Numbers
1 1. cent vingt et une pages 2. trois cent quatre-vingts 3. l’an mille huit cent
4. page quatre cent 5. cent vingt pages 6. deux cent mille 7. deux cents millions d’euros
8. tous les vingt ans 9. deux millions deux cent vingt mille trois cents
10. quatre-vingts millions
2 1. huit milliards 2. six mille 3. un virgule neuf million 4. deux virgule un millions
5. quatre miles à l’heure 6. trois milles nautiques 7. neuf divisé par trois égale(nt) trois
8. huit moins un égale(nt) sept 9. quatre fois / multiplié par six égale(nt) vingt-quatre
10. un plus un égale(nt) deux
3 1. quatre-vingt-dix-neuf 2. cent soixante et onze 3. cent soixante-douze
4. mille deux cent quatre-vingt-six 5. trente-trois 6. sept cent soixante-dix-huit
7. cent quatre-vingts 8. quatre-vingt-dix-sept virgule soixante-deux
9. cent quatre-vingt-onze 10. deux cent quatre-vingt-un
4 1. page trente et un 2. trente et unième page 3. page trois cent 4. ligne quatre-vingt
5. premier jour 6. vingt et unième semaine 7. quatre-vingt-unième semaine
8. soixante et onzième semaine 9. quatre-vingt-onzième semaine 10. l’an huit cent
5 1. un tiers 2. trois quarts 3. cinq huitièmes 4. un demi, une moitié 5. deux et demi
6. trois minutes et demie 7. un neuvième 8. six cinquantièmes 9. huit kilomètres et demi
10. deux millièmes
Chapter 6 Adverbs
1 nonchalamment … silencieusement … généralement … rarement … tranquillement …
simplement … Habituellement … parallèlement … soigneusement … inévitablement …
précipitamment … Inopinément … violemment … étrangement … vraiment …
attentivement … délicatement … Rapidement … hâtivement … bonnement …
indubitablement
2
A5 B7 C8 D3 E 9
F1 G2 H10 I 6 J 4
3 Suggested answers: 1. peu 2. près 3. dedans 4. faiblement / doucement 5. moins 6. encore
7. bas 8. impoliment 9. tôt 10. brièvement
4 1. aujourd’hui 2. Longtemps 3. depuis 4. déjà 5. maintenant 6. Parfois 7. encore 8. En n
9. tôt 10. soudain
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
423
5 1. Oui, je l’ai beaucoup aimé.
2. Non, je n’y vais pas souvent.
3. Elle chante très bien.
4. Oui, elle l’attend toujours.
5. Oui, j’y vais quelquefois.
6. Non, je ne l’ai pas vraiment lu.
7. Oui, je tiens absolument à y aller.
8. Oui, il est parti brusquement.
9. J’en mange assez.
10. Non, il n’est pas aussi fort qu’avant.
Chapter 7 Negation
1 1. Le jardinier ne taille pas les arbres.
2. Il n’a pas eu le temps d’arroser les eurs auparavant.
3. Il ne commence jamais sa journée par les eurs.
4. Dans sa cabane, il n’a rien.
5. Il n’a même pas une meule pour affûter les lames.
6. Ne doit-il pas affûter les lames?
7. Pas les sécateurs, non !
8. Demain il ne lui restera plus beaucoup à faire.
9. Il ne lui faudra pas préparer les engrais.
10. Ne pas répandre les produits non plus.
2 1. Il n’a vu personne.
2. Il ne lui reste que trois jours de révision.
3. Il n’a rien mangé depuis ce matin.
4. Il n’est allé nulle part aujourd’hui.
5. Il ne va ni au cinéma ni au théâtre / Il ne va ni au théâtre ni au cinéma.
6. Il n’a guère le temps de dormir.
7. Il n’a nullement envie de plaisanter.
8. Je n’ai rien compris à son discours.
9. Elle ne s’en souvient jamais.
10. Nous espérons ne rencontrer personne.
3 1. Ils ne seront pas avant le week-end.
2. Je n’ai pas bu / pris un seul café depuis deux jours.
3. Je n’ai jamais mis les pieds ni en Asie ni en Afrique.
4. Ils n’ont pas de boulanger dans ce village.
5. Ce n’est pas un magasin.
6. Ils n’en ont vu nulle part.
7. Pas une plante ne peut survivre sans eau.
8. Ils m’ont fait travailler pour rien.
9. Ils sont irlandais, n’est-ce pas?
10. Il est parti sans rien acheter.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
424
4 1. Non, je n’ai rien perdu.
2. Non, je n’en veux plus.
3. Non, je n’en ai jamais appris.
4. Non, je n’ai vu personne.
5. Non, ils n’y sont plus.
6. Non, ils n’en ont jamais écouté.
7. Non, elle ne s’est pas encore changée.
8. Non, je ne veux rien boire.
9. Non, pas encore.
10. Non, je n’en veux plus.
5 Je ne suis pas heureux. Je n’ai pas de dîplomes et ma vie ne s’annonce pas bien. Je n’aurai
même pas de maison, ni de jardin ni de voiture.
Je ne fumerai jamais de gros cigares. Je n’aurai pas d’amis sincères. Mes parents ne seront
plus là pour garder les enfants.
Je n’aurai pas assez d’argent pour envoyer mes enfants étudier à l’étranger. Ils ne
fréquenteront pas les plus grandes écoles.
Ils ne voyageront jamais. Ils ne connaîtront pas toutes les grandes cultures du monde. Ils
ne seront pas souvent épanouis et personne ne les aimera. Ils n’auront pas beaucoup
d’amis sur Facebook. Ce ne sera pas la fête tous les jours.
Chapter 8 Verbs 1
1
Verb Tense Example 1 2 3 4
1. aller present Ils vont à Londres ce samedi. X
2. penser present Nous pensons aux vacances. X
3. poster compound
past/perfect
Tu as posté la lettre hier? X
4. avoir besoin present Je n’ai besoin de rien pour l’instant. X
5. dédicacer compound
past/perfect
Elle a dédicacé son livre à sa lle. X
6. voyager compound
past/perfect
Nous avons voyagé dans / par toute
l’Europe.
X
7. passer present Je passe mes vacances en France. X
8. jouer present Est-ce que tu joues aux échecs? X
9. jouer present Est-ce que vous jouez du piano? X
10. travailler present Il travaille le bois. X
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
425
2 1. Les étudiants ont été appelés par leur nom.
2. Ils ont été installés dans différentes salles d’examens.
3. Les identités ont été contrôlées par les surveillants.
4. Puis les enveloppes ont été décachetées (par eux).
5. et les sujets ont été distribués (par eux).
6. Une bouteille d’eau par table a été autorisée.
7. Tous les portables avaient été mis dans une boîte en entrant.
8. et les vestes avaient été laissées aux porte-manteaux.
9. Les étudiants n’étaient pas autorisés par le règlement à sortir avant une heure.
10. Une copie fut rendue par un étudiant bien avant les autres.
3
Verb Example 1 2 3
1. Se dégrader La situation s’est dégradée / se degrade. X
2. Se saluer Ils ne se sont pas salués. X
3. Se battre Ils se sont battus comme des chiffonniers. X
4. Se voir De tels événements se voient rarement. X
5. Se demander Elle se demande ce qu’elle va faire. X
6. S’entraider Elles s’entraident chaque fois qu’elles le peuvent. X
7. S’appeler Nous nous appelons Claude tous les deux. X
8. Se chercher Elle se cherche un emploi convenable. X
4 1. À quelle heure vous êtes-vous réveillé(e)s / est-ce que vous vous êtes
réveillé(e)s?
2. Quand nous sommes-nous levé(e)s / est-ce que nous nous sommes levé(e)s?
3. À quel moment nous douchions-nous / est-ce que nous nous douchions?
4. Quand se sécheront-ils / elles les cheveux / est-ce qu’ils / elles se sécheront
les cheveux?
5. Quand te maquillais-tu / est-ce que tu te maquillais?
6. Quand s’est-il / elle brossé(e) les dents / est-ce qu’il / elle s’est brossé(e) les
dents?
7. Quand m’habillerai-je / est-ce que je m’habillerai?
8. Quand vous êtes-vous mis(e)s en route / est-ce que vous vous êtes mis(e)s
en route?
9. Quand s’étaient-ils / elles engouffré(e)s dans le métro / est-ce qu’ils / elles
s’étaient engouffré(e)s dans le métro?
10. Quand t’étais-tu assis(e) à ton bureau / est-ce que tu t’étais assis(e) à ton
bureau?
5 1. Il s’agit de sauver l’euro.
2. Pour cela il convient de s’entendre entre pays de la zone euro.
3. Il est clair que la tâche sera rude.
4. Il arrive parfois que l’unanimité se soit faite autour de certaines questions.
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
426
5. Mais il va de soi que la mésentente entre Européens est la norme.
6. Il coulera beaucoup d’eau sous les ponts avant d’atteindre l’harmonie entre
Européens.
7. Il fut un temps où l’enthousiasme pour l’idée européenne était grand.
8. Mais ce temps est révolu et il y a surtout de la déception dans les cœurs.
9. Il faudra beaucoup de patience.
10. Il est important que les Européens comprennent qu’il est nécessaire de sauver
l’euro au plus vite.
Chapter 9 Verbs 2 Tenses of the indicative
1 1. j’ai pris
2. j’y suis retournée
3. nous aurons repris
4. je serais bien … repartie
5. il faut
6. je pourrais
7. je leur ai déjà beaucoup demandé
8. il fut … je demandais
9. je préfèrerais
10. on verra … j’aurai trouvé
2 1. Ce café était trop mauvais, je ne l’ai pas bu.
2. On a bien ri hier, mais il n’a pas fait beau de toute la journée.
3. En quelle année vous-êtes vous mariés?
4. Vous êtes arrivés pendant que je dormais.
5. Je n’ai pas entendu le téléphone, j’ai dormi toute la matinée.
6. Nous sommes allés la voir 3 fois mais elle n’était jamais là.
7. Je voulais bavarder avec lui mais il est parti trop vite.
8. Où êtes-vous allé hier pendant que j’écrivais mes lettres?
9. Hier il a emprunté la voiture de ses parents car ses amis l’attendaient depuis une
heure.
10. J’aimais bien lire le journal les matins au petit déjeuner quand j’étais en stage.
3 1. Je dormais quand soudain le telephone sonna.
2. Ils arrivèrent au moment où je me lavais les mains pour passer à table.
3. Nous avions l’habitude de lui rendre visite souvent.
4. En entendant le bruit, le chat prit la fuite.
5. Dès que je sortis sur le balcon, l’oiseau s’envola dans un éclair.
6. Tous les matins en sortant je faisais attention à bien fermer la porte.
7. En un instant les nuages s’accumulèrent et il se mit à pleuvoir. Nous dûmes
courir nous abriter.
8. Ils rentraient chaque jour en autobus.
9. Grand père s’arrêtait toutes les demi-heures pour reprendre son souf e.
10. Il se couchait tard tous les soirs, mais il comprit très vite qu’à ce rythme son travail
en patirait.
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
427
4 1. Si j’avais su je serais resté plus longtemps.
2. Si j’étais resté plus longtemps, j’aurais raté mon train.
3. S’il prenait le train, il arriverait plus vite.
4. S’il avait fait attention il ne serait pas tombé de vélo.
5. Si tu m’avais averti, j’aurais évité tous ces ennuis.
6. Si je taillais ces arbres j’aurais plus de fruits.
7. Si je n’avais pas eu mal au bras j’aurais monté la valise moi-même.
8. Que ferais-tu si je n’étais pas là?
9. Que t’achèterais-tu si tu étais riche?
10. On ne pourrait gagner que si on s’entrainait.
5 1. Elle était passée plusieurs fois par ici.
2. Elles étaient descendues du train un peu précipitemment.
3. Elles avaient couru sur le quai.
4. Elles n’avaient pas vu le banc.
5. Ils avaient passé leurs examens avant l’été.
6. Ils étaient venus tard et avaient décidé de partir tôt.
7. Qu’étaient-ils devenus?
8. Elles avaient bien fait le voyage à Paris mais elles n’y étaient demeurées que
quelques jours.
9. Elles avaient demeuré rue Victor Hugo.
10. Aviez-vous descendu tous les cartons?
Chapter 10 Verbs 3 The imperative, the in nitive, participles
1 1. Je lui ai dit de se dépêcher.
2. On nous a dit de laisser tomber les sucreries.
3. Ils nous ont recommandé de faire nos courses après 18 heures.
4. Le médecin nous a recommandé de manger des fruits et des légumes.
5. Le médecin m’a conseillé de me peser régulièrement.
6. Le médecin m’a conseillé de prendre mon pouls tous les matins.
7. Le médecin m’a dit de ne pas maigrir trop vite.
8. Le médecin m’a répété de ne pas me faire de soucis et de me reposer.
9. Mon mari m’a dit de ne pas croire tout ce que disent les médecins.
10. J’ai dit à mon mari de s’occuper de ses affaires.
2 1. Le professeur nous a demandé : « n’oubliez pas les livres ! »
2. Il nous a conseillé : « ne buvez pas trop de café ! »
3. Le professeur nous a conseillé : « révisez bien le cours ! »
4. Il nous a suggéré : « laissez de côté les 3 premiers chapitres ! »
5. Il nous a précisé : « pensez bien à apporter une pièce d’identité ! »
6. Il a répété : « ne commettez pas la même faute que l’an dernier ! »
7. Il a dit : « apportez un dictionnaire ! »
8. Il a dit : « évitez tout appareil électronique à l’examen ! »
9. Il a dit : « ne soyez pas surpris par le sujet d’examen ! »
10. Il a dit : « souhaitez-nous bonne chance ! »
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
428
3 1. Coupez le circuit avant de toucher aux ls !
2. Je l’ai laissé parler et je lui ai répondu.
3. Le laisser sans parler 5 minutes c’est le torturer !
4. C’est irritée qu’elle s’est présentée devant le directeur.
5. Mais arrêtez donc de vous plaindre et mettez-vous au travail !
6. En voulant trop bien faire elle s’est fracturé la main.
7. Elle n’a aimé qu’une chose, se faire bronzer sur la plage.
8. Ils sont partis jouer sur la plage après s’être reposés l’après-midi.
9. Elles m’ont laissé me débrouiller tout seul.
10. Vous n’avez pas eu la patience d’attendre.
4 1. Quelles séries télévisées avez-vous regardées?
2. Quelle sorte de lms as-tu préférée?
3. Quels ingrédients avez-vous trouvés dans ce magasin?
4. Voici les fruits que je t’ai apportés.
5. Voici le stylo et la eur que je t’ai offerts pour ton anniversaire.
6. C’est le livre d’exercices que je t’ai prêté.
7. Voilà les revues et les magazines que j’ai lus.
8. C’est la liste des lms que j’ai aimés.
9. Ce sont les évènements dont j’ai parlé dans mon article.
10. C’est la personne à qui elle a souvent écrit.
5 1. courant 2. adhérents 3. adhérant 4. fatigante 5. brûlants 6. parcourant
7. précédant … reposants … suivant 8. encourageants 9. fatigants … précédents
10. chantant
Chapter 11 Verbs 4 The subjunctive
1
in nitive je / j’ tu il / elle nous vous ils / elles
jouer joue joues joue jouions jouiez jouent
nir nisse nisses nisse nissions nissiez nissent
rendre rende rendes rende rendions rendiez rendent
avoir aie aies ait ayons ayez aient
être sois sois soit soyons soyez soient
dormir dorme dormes dorme dormions dormiez dorment
recevoir reçoive reçoives reçoive recevions receviez reçoivent
construire construise construises construise construisions construisiez construisent
écrire écrive écrives écrive écrivions écriviez écrivent
aller aille ailles aille allions alliez aillent
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
429
2 a aille b viennes c comprenne d ait e permettiez f partions g soit h puissiez
3 a vienne b avez c arriviez d va e racontions f soit g aient h aie
4 1d; 2c; 3f; 4b; 5g; 6a; 7h; 8e
5 Possible answers:
Je crains que Claude ne soit très en colère et j’ai bien peur qu’il aille jusqu’à la séparation.
Claude, je regrette qu’on se soit disputé ! Je ne voudrais pas qu’on se sépare.
Je suis fâchée qu’il n’ait pas téléphoné ni écrit une seule fois depuis 3 semaines.
Claude, avant que tu ne partes tu avais promis d’écrire !
Pourvu que Claude ne véri e pas son compte en banque tout de suite, il va certainement
exiger que je rembourse la somme.
Claude, il est temps que je t’explique ! Je suis vraiment désolé que le cheval ait perdu la
course. J’aurais voulu que tu gagnes beaucoup d’argent pour que tu puisses te payer cette
guitare.
Chapter 12 Prepositions
1 1. dans … dans … à 2. de chez … à … de … 3. sur … sur … à 4. … en… à … chez
5. dans … Dans … au 6. au … par … à 7. avec … de 8. au … à … sur 9. autour
10. par … sous
2 1. chez 2. chez 3. à l’ 4. chez 5. à l’ 6. chez 7. à la 8. à 9. à la 10. chez
3 1. entre … parmi 2. Parmi 3. entre 4. entre 5. Parmi 6. (qu’)entre 7. parmi 8. entre 9.
parmi 10. parmi
4 1. à … en 2. de … aux 3. à … au 4. à … en 5. au … en 6. à … à 7. à …en 8. à …dans le
9. à … en 10. à … dans le
5 1.
à dans chez en sur
être Paris la rue le dentiste avance le trottoir
2.
à dans chez en vers
aller pied sa chambre mon oncle Normandie le sud
ESSENTIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR
430
3.
à compter
de
à
l’exception
du
entre après avant de
Quand? la semaine
prochaine
jeudi
après-midi
2 et 3
heures
le déjeuner récupérer
les enfants
4.
pour en [no
preposition]
aux par
passer un avare sixième l’aspirateur choses
sérieuses
Marseille
5.
à du après pour de
venir l’apprendre grec son chef s’excuser loin
Chapter 13 Conjunctions
1 1. car 2. ni … ni 3. et 4. mais 5. car 6. donc 7. ou 8. et 9. or … donc 10. puis
2 1. quand 2. Parce qu’ 3. Plutôt que 4. parce qu’ 5. que 6. à mesure que 7. Bien qu’
8. pour que 9. tant que 10. Selon que
3 1. mais 2. pour que 3. quand 4. ni …ni 5. ou 6. si 7. comme si 8. Dès que / aussitôt que
9. autant que / tant que / aussi longtemps que 10. donc
4 1. Bien qu’ 2. S’ 3. Quoiqu’ 4. si … si 5. Quand 6. Dès qu’ 7. Bien qu’ 8. depuis qu’
9. Bien qu’ 10. s’
5 1. Pour qu’ 2. Parce qu’ 3. a n qu’ / pour qu’ 4. Puisque 5. ainsi que / comme / de même que
6. pour qu’ / a n qu’/ de manière qu’ 7. comme 8. qu’ 9. qu’ 10. parce qu’
Chapter 14 Relative pronouns
1 1. dont 2. qu’ 3. qui 4. que 5. qui 6. qui 7. qu’ 8. qu’ 9. que 10. dont
2 1. qui / lequel 2. qui 3. qui / laquelle 4. auquel 5. lequel 6. laquelle 7. quoi 8. quoi 9. Auquel
10. qui
3 1. [Ce] dont 2. [Ce] à quoi 3. [ce] qui 4. [ce] dont 5. [ce] qui 6. [ce] à quoi 7. [Ce] qui
8.[Ce] qu’ 9. [ce] que 10. [Ce] de quoi
4 1. Celle que 2. Celui pour qui 3. Celui qui 4. Ce que 5. Ce qui 6. Ceux que 7. Celles que
8. Ceux dont 9. Celles qui 10. Ceux à qui
5 1. où 2. dont 3. où 4. dont 5. où 6. dont 7. où 8. dont 9. dont 10. où
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
431
Chapter 15 Questions and exclamations
1
1G 2A 3I 4F 5J 6D 7E 8C 9B 10H
2 1. Qui 2. Que 3. Comment 4. Combien 5. Quel 6. Qu’est-ce qu’ 7. Où 8. Laquelle
9. Qu’est-ce qu’ 10. Lequel
3 1. Combien 2. Quel 3. où 4. Comment 5. Quand 6. Pourquoi 7. Où 8. Quoi 9. Qui
10. quand
4 1. comment 2. où 3. combien 4. qui est-ce 5. quel 6. où est-ce que 7. qui 8. qu’est-ce que
9. si 10. laquelle
5
Possible questions Responses
1. naissance Quand est-ce qu’elle est née? En mai 1989
2. naissance Où est-ce qu’elle est née? À Helsinki
3. langue Quelle langue est-ce qu’Isabel parle à
la maison?
À la maison? Le suédois!
4. éducation Est-ce qu’elle a été une très bonne
élève?
Oui, une très bonne élève
5. études Est-ce qu’elle étudie? Oui, le droit
6. études Où est-ce qu’elle étudie? À l’université de Helsinki
7. études Pour combien est-ce qu’elle en a
encore?
Pour encore 3 ans
8. vie sociale Est-ce que Camilla est sa meilleure
amie?
Oui, Camilla est sa meilleure amie
9. vie sociale Combien est-ce qu’elle a d’amis en
tout?
Des amis? Au moins trois.
10. carrière Qu’est-ce qu’elle voudra faire après sa
licence?
Après sa licence? elle voudra faire un
master
432
INDEX
à 12.5.1
following in nitive 10.2.6
with geographical names
12.6
for possession 12.5.1
repeated 12.1
a / an 2.4, 11.7.5
abbreviations 1.1.6, 1.3.7,
4.10.4
about to 12.5.55
above 12.5.12
abstract nouns 1.1.1, 2.5.1
à cause de 12.5.2
accents Appendix pp. 391–3
according to 12.5.20, 12.5.52
à condition que
11.7.3, 13.4
à côté de 12.5.3
acronyms
1.1.6, 1.3.7
across 12.5.9
active voice 8.2, 8.2.3, 9.1
Adjectives Chapter 4
Key points 4
accompanying numbers 4.1.4
adjectives, shortened 4.10.4
adjectives of colour 4.8
adjectives used as adverbs
4.10.3, 6.1
adjectives used as nouns
4.10.2
adjectives with a second
masculine form 4.3
adjectival expressions 4.11
agreement of adjectives
according to meaning 4.7
agreement with
on 4.6
attributive 4 (Key points)
change of meaning according
to position 4.1.3
comparative adjectives
4.2.13
comparison of adjectives
4.12
compound adjectives 4.5
feminine forms 4.2
gurative use
4.1.1
foreign borrowings 4.9
of nationality 4.1.1
past participles as adjectives
4.1.1
placed before the noun 4.1.2
plural forms 4.4
position 4.1, 4.1.1
preceding prepositions 12.3
predicative 4 (Key points)
as present participle 10.4.2
special cases 4.2.15, 4.10
verbal adjectives 4.2.13,
4.2.14, 4.13
adverbials 6.1
Adverbs Chapter 6
Key points 6
adjectives used as adverbs
4.10.3, 6.1
adverbials 6.1
adverbs and adverbial
expressions 6.1
of assertion 6.3.5
change of meaning 6.5.4
comparison of adverbs 6.4
of degree 6.3.2
different types of adverbs 6.3
differentiated from
prepositions 12.4
foreign borrowings 6.1
formation of adverbs ending
in
-ment 6.2
of frequency 6.5.3
inversion after certain
adverbs 6.6
of manner 6.3.1
modifying an adjective, past
participle or another
adverb 6.5.2
negative adverbs
6.3.6
of place 6.3.4
position 6.5
preceding prepositions 12.3
superlative 6.4
of time 6.3.3
a n de 12.5.4
a n que 11.7.3,
13.4
after
adverb of place 6.3.4
adverb of time 6.3.3
preposition 12.5.8
time conjunction 9.9.2,
13.3.3
against 12.5.19
Agreement
adjectives 4 (Key points)
adjectives of colour 4.8
of adjectives with
on 4.6
collective nouns 1.1.3, 10.6.4
past participle with
avoir
auxiliary 3.2.5, 10.6.4
past participle with
être
auxiliary 10.6.4
past participle with
on 10.6.4
past participle with relative
pronoun
14.1
possessive determiners 2.8.1
possessive pronouns 3.10
present participle as an
adjective 10.4.2
subject pronouns
3.1
verbal adjective 4.13
ainsi (que) 10.6.4, 13.3.2
à l’exception de 12.5.5
all
3.11, 5.9,
11.7.5
aller
aspect 8.6.4
conjugated with
être 9.5.2
exception to
-er verbs
9.2.4
imperative 10.1.1
plus present particple 8.6
radical 9.2.1
semi-auxiliary verb
8.2.4
almost 6.5.1
although 13.4, 14.5
always 6.3.3
à mesure que 13.3.2
à moins de 12.5.6
à moins que 7.17
, 11.7.3,
13.4
among 12.5.44
amour 1.2.13
and 3.8, 13.1.3
another 4.1.2
antecedent
10.6.4, 11.7.5, 14.1
anyone 3.11
anything 3.11
à partir de 12.5.7
à peine 3.1.4, 6.6
s’apercevoir 8.4.3
apparaître 8.2.1
, 10.6.2
s’appeler
8.2.1
apposition 2.6
après 6.3.3, 6.3.4,
10.2.6, 12.5.8
INDEX
INDEX
433
après que 9.9.2, 9.10.3, 9.11.2,
13.3.3
around 12.5.15
arriver (à) 9.5.2, 10.2.6
Articles 2.1
before a noun in apposition
2.6
de
nite article 2.3
forms 2.2
inde nite article 2.4
omission after
de and en 2.6
partitive article 2.5
as 12.5.29,
13.3.2
as … as 4.12
as far as 13.3.2
as for 12.5.49
as if 13.3.2
Aspect (in verbs) 8.2, 8.6
duration 8.6, 8.6.4
grammatical 8.6.1
lexical 8.6.2
perfective/imperfective 8.2,
8.6.3
semantic 8.6.3
s’asseoir 9.3.1
assez (de) 5.9, 6.3.2
as soon as 9.9.2, 13.3.3
at
12.5.1
at once 6.1
à travers 12.5.9
at the time of 12.5.41
aucun 3.11,
7.4
au delà de
12.5.10
au dessous de 12.5.11
au-dessus de 12.5.12
au lieu de 12.5.13
auprès de 12.5.14
auquel / à laquelle / auxquels /
auxquelles
14.8
aussi 3.7
,
6.3.2,
6.4.1
aussi ... que 4.12, 6.4.1
aussitôt que 13.3.3
autant (que) 6.3.2, 6.4.1,
10.6.4
, 13.3.2
autour de
12.5.15
autre 3.11, 4.1.4
Auxiliary verbs
avoir and
être 8.2.2
compound tenses 9.1
forming passive 9.2.1
pronominal verbs 8.4
past in nitive
10.2.2
verbs with
être auxiliary
9.5.2
avant 12.5.16
avant que
7.17, 11.7.3, 13.4
avec 12.5.17
avoir
auxiliary in compound tenses
3.2.5
, 9.2.1
auxiliary verb 8.2.2
imperative
10.1.1
past participle 10.6.2
present participle 10.4.1
present subjunctive 11.1
avoir besoin 3.4.2, 10.2.6,
11.7.1
avoir l’air 8.2.1
avoir peur 7.17, 11.7.1
bad 4.1.2
badly 6.3.1
beau
4.1.2, 4.3,
4.4.2
beaucoup 6.4.1, 6.4.2
beaucoup de
5.9, 6.3.2
beautiful 4.1.2
, 4.3, 4.4.2
because 13.1.1, 13.3.2
because of 12.5.2
become 8.2.1, 9.5.2, 10.2.2
before 12.5.16, 13.4
behind 12.5.26
below 12.5.11
beside 12.5.3, 12.5.14
the best 4.12, 6.4.2
better 4.12, 6.1, 6.4.2
between 12.5.35
beyond 12.5.10
bien 4.10.1, 6.3.1,
6.4.2
bien que 11.7.3, 13.4
bientôt 6.3.3
, 8.6.2
big
4.1.2
bon 4.1.2, 4.2.7,
4.12
bon marché 4.11
bouche bée 4.2.18
bref 4.1.2
, 4.2.6,
6.2
but 13.1.4
by
(=
à) 12.5.1
(=
de) 12.5.22
(=
en) 12.5.29
(=
par) 12.5.43
ça 3.1.5
, 3.9,
3.9.2
ça / cela fait 13.3.3
calculations 5.8
can 8.2.5
car 13.1.1
Cardinal numbers
5.1
in Belgium 5.1
cardinal and ordinal numbers
together 5.3
huit
and onze 5.1.3
linkage with
et 5.1.1
linkage with hyphens 5.1.1
placed after the noun
5.1.5
placed before the noun 4.1.2
plurals 5.1.2
pronunciation 5.1.4
replacing ordinal numbers
5.2.4
in Switzerland
5.1
ce / c’ 3.9, 3.9.2
ce, cet, cette, ces 2.7
ceci 3.9
, 3.9.2
cela
3.9, 3.9.2
celui / celle / ceux / celles que
3.9
, 14.4
celui-ci / celui-là / ceux-ci /
ceux-là
3.9
cent(s)
5.1.2, 5.1.4
ce que 14.4, 15.1.5
ce qui 14.3, 15.1.5
c’est 3.1.5, 3.7, 10.2.6
chacun de 5.9
chaque 5.9
châtain 4.8.2
cheap(er)
4.11
cheeses (gender) 1.2.3
cher
4.1.3, 4.2.3
chez
12.5.18
ciel 1.3.6
ci-joint 10.6.4
collective nouns
1.1.3, 10.6.4
combien
adverb 6.3.2
interrogative 15.1.3
comme
adverb 6.3.1
conjunction 10.6.4,
13.3.2
exclamatory 15.2.1
commencer à 8.2.4, 8.6.4,
10.2.6
comment
adverb 6.3.1
exclamatory 15.2.1
interrogative 15.1.3
comme si
13.3.2
common nouns 1
Comparison 4.12, 6.4
Comparison of adjectives
4.12
of equality 4.12
of inferiority 4.12
irregular forms 4.12
of superiority 4.12
Comparison of adverbs 6.4
of equality 6.4.1
of inferiority 6.4.1
irregular forms 6.4.2
of superiority 6.4.1
Compound conditional tense
9.13
Key point 9.13.1
in conditional clauses
9.13.2
INDEX
434
formation 9.13.1
second form 9.13.2
use 9.13.2
Compound future tense 9.11
Key point 9.11.1
after conjunctions of time
9.11.2
formation 9.11.1
uses 9.11.2
Compound nouns 1.1.4
gender 1.2.16
plural 1.3.13–1.3.20
Compound past indicative 9.5
Key points 9.5.2
in conditional clauses 9.5.3
conjugation of verbs with
être 9.5.2
formation 9.5.1
uses 9.5.3
Compound past subjunctive 11.2
formation
11.2.1
compound present participle
10.4.4
concrete nouns 1.1.1
Conditional clauses
compound conditional
9.13.2
compound past 9.5.3
conditional 9.12.3
pluperfect 9.8.2
summary of sequence of
tenses 9.14
Conditional tense 9.12
Key point 9.12.1
conditional clauses 9.12.3,
9.14
formation 9.12.1
uses 9.12.2
conjugations 8.2, 9.1, 9.2.4,
Verb tables pp. 389–422
Conjunctions Chapter 13
Key points 13
conditional conjunctions
13.3.4
coordinating conjunctions
13.1
future after conjunctions of
time 9.10.3, 9.11.2,
13.3.3
subordinating conjunctions
13.2
subordinating conjunctions
plus indicative 13.3
subordinating conjunctions
plus indicative or
subjunctive 13.5
subordinating conjunctions
plus subjunctive 13.4
connaître 10.6.2
continuer à / de 10.2.6
contre 12.5.19
coordinating conjunctions 13.1
Co-ordination
personal pronouns 3.8
prepositions 12.1
copula
8.2.1
count nouns 1.1.2, 2.1
craindre 7.17, 11.7.1
croire 10.6.2, 11.7.2
dans 12.5.20
with geographical names
12.6
translating ‘in’
12.5
d’après 12.5.21
dates
5.6
de 12.5.22
co-ordination 12.1
following in
nitive 10.2.6
linking two nouns 4.7.2
noun complement
12.5.22
omission 12.5.22
omission of the article after
2.6
preposition and partitive
article 12.5.22
de façon à 12.5.23
de façon (que) 6.2, 11.7.3, 13.5
defective verbs 9.2.3
De nite article 2.3
Key points
2.3
with abstract nouns 2.3
contracted forms 2.2, 2.3
with countries 2.3.2
elision of le and la 2.3.1
with nouns used in a general
sense 2.3
with seasons 2.3.2
with superlatives 2.3.2
with titles 2.3.2
uses
2.3, 2.3.2
déjà 6.3.3
délice 1.2.13
demander (à / de)
followed by à or de 10.2.6
with indirect question
15.1.5
subject-verb inversion 3.1.4
two objects 10.2.3
de manière à
12.5.24
de manière (que) 6.2, 11.7.3,
14.5
demi 1.3.17, 4.11,
5.8
Demonstrative determiner 2.7
Key points 2.7.1
emphatic forms 2.7.2
forms 2.7.1
Demonstrative pronoun 3.9
Key points 3.9
ça 3.9, 3.9.2
ce / c’
3.9, 3.9.2
ceci and cela 3.9
, 3.9.2
forms 3.9
in relative clauses
3.9.1
de peur que 11.7.3, 13.4
depuis 6.3.3
, 12.5.25
depuis que
13.3.3
dernier 4.1.4
, 5.2,
11.7.5
derrière 12.5.26
dès 12.5.27
dès que 9.9.2, 9.10.3, 9.11.2,
13.3.3
descendre 9.5.2
de sorte que 13.5
despite
12.5.32, 12.5.42
Determiners Chapter 2
de
nite article 2.3
demonstrative 2.7
inde nite article 2.4
partitive article 2.5
possessive 2.8
devant 12.5.28
devenir 8.2.1, 9.5.2,
10.2.2
devoir 8.2.5
followed by the in nitive
10.2.6
modal verb 8.2.5
as a noun 10.2.4
object pronouns and
in nitive 3.6.4
semi-auxiliary
8.2.4
dire
+
de + in nitive 10.2.6
indirect questions 15.1.5
past participle 10.6.2
-re irregular verb
9.2.4
subject–verb inversion 3.1.4
with two objects 10.2.3
Direct object 3.2
Key points 3.2
after transitive verb
8.3.1
agreement with avoir
auxiliary 10.6.4
English direct object =
French indirect object
3.2.1
le neutral pronoun 3.2.2
position 3.2.4
Disjunctive pronouns
: see
Stressed pronouns
donc 13.1
, 13.1.2
dont
14.2, 14.6
Double compound past
subjunctive
11.5
formation 11.5.1
INDEX
INDEX
435
uses 11.5.2
douzaine 5.4, 10.6.4
droit
6.1
dû 8.2.5
, 10.6.4
duquel / de laquelle / desquels /
desquelles
14.8
durant
12.5.46
during 12.5.20
, 12.5.43,
12.5.46
each, each one 5.9
elle / elles 3.7
en (preposition)
12.5.29
co-ordination 12.1
followed by gerund 10.5.1
with geographical names 12.6
omission of the article after
2.6
en
(pronoun) 3.4
Key points 3.4
after certain verbs and
expressions 3.4.2
agreement with past
participle
10.6.4
with the gerund 12.5.29
with imperative 10.1.1
with numbers and quanti ers
3.4.1
with quanti ers 5.9
s’en aller 8.4.2
encore 3.1.4, 6.3.3
en deçà de 12.5.30
en dehors de 12.5.31
en dépit de 12.5.32
en face de 12.5.33
en n 8.6.2
enough
5.9, 6.3.2
en plus de 12.5.34
entendre
object + in nitive
3.2.4
with two object pronouns
3.6.3
verb of perception 10.2.3,
10.2.6
entendu
10.6.4
en train de 8.6, 8.6.4
entre 12.5.35
entrer 9.5.2
envers 12.5.36
espérer 9.3.1, 11.7.1
est-ce que ? 15.1.1, 15.1.3
et 3.8, 4.7.1, 5.1.1, 10.6.4,
13.1.3
étant donné 10.6.4
être
auxiliary verb 8.2.2, 9.2.1
forming the passive
8.2.3,
9.2.1
linking verb
8.2.1
for measurements 5.7
past participle 10.6.2
present participle 10.4.1
present subjunctive 11.1
with pronominal verbs 8.4
verbs conjugated with
être
9.5.2
être à 8.6.4
être en train de 8.2.4, 8.6
eux 3.7
even if
13.3.4
ever 7.6
everyone 3.11
everything
3.11
everywhere 6.3.4
except for 12.5.5, 12.5.51
except that 13.3.2
Exclamations 15.2
Key points 15.2
exclamatory words 15.2.1
interjections 15.2.3
use of subjunctive 15.2.2
faillir 8.2.4, 8.6.4
faire
followed by in nitive
10.6.4
object + in nitive 3.2.4
past participle 10.6.2
-re
irregular verb 9.2.4
with two object pronouns
3.6.3
falloir 8.2.4, 8.2.5
far (from)
6.3.4, 12.5.40
fat
4.1.2
few 5.9
nir de 8.6.4
rst 5.2.2
for
(=
car
) 13.1.1
(=
depuis) 12.5.25
(=
pendant, durant) 12.5.46
(=
pour) 12.5.47
for fear that
13.4
fort 6.2,
6.3.2
fou 4.3, 6.2
fractions and calculations 5.8
franc 4.2.1,
4.2.9
from
(=
à partir de) 12.5.7
(=
dans) 12.5.20
(=
de) 12 5.22
(=
dès) 12.5.27
(=
par) 12.5.43
Future tense
9.10
Key point 9.10.1
after conjunctions of time
9.10.3, 9.11.2,
13.3.3
formation 9.10.1
sequence of tenses 9.10.3
uses 9.10.2
Gender 1.2
animate beings 1.2.1
change of meaning according
to gender 1.2.12
countries, regions, towns
1.2.15
feminine nouns 1.2.6–1.2.9
gens 1.1.5, 1.2.14
inanimate nouns 1.2.2
masculine nouns 1.2.4,
1.2.5
means of transport 1.2.3
products 1.2.3
professions 1.2.11
separate forms for male and
female 1.2.10
variable gender 1.2.13
gens 1.1.5, 1.2.14
Gerund 10.5
formation 10.5.1
in the negative 10.5.4
tout + gerund 10.5.3
uses
10.5.2
good 4.1.2
grâce à 12.5.37
grand
1.3.14, 4.1.2, 4.1.3,
4.2.1
gris 4.1.3, 4.2.12
gros 4.1.2, 4.2.12
half 4.11
, 5.5,
5.8
hardly 7.5
haut 4.1.2, 5.7
have just (to) 8.2.4, 8.6.4
,
10.2.6
high 4.1.2, 5.7
his, hers, its 2.8.1, 3.10
hors de 12.5.38
how
exclamatory 15.2.1
interrogative 15.1.3
how much / many
interrogative 15.1.3
huit 5.1.3
, 5.1.4
hundred(s) 5.1.1
hyphens with numbers 5.1.1
if 6.3.2
,13.3.4, 15.1.5
il (impersonal) 3.1.5
il / elle / ils / elles 3.1,
3.1.2
il est and c’est 3.1.5, 10.2.6
il faut 3.1.5, 8.2.5, 10.2.6,
11.7.4
il s’agit de 3.1.5, 8.5
il se peut 3.1.5
il y a 3.1.5, 8.5, 13.3.3
INDEX
436
immediate future 8.6, 8.6.4,
9.10.3
Imperative 10.1
Key points 10.1
formation 10.1.1
with object pronouns 3.2.4
past imperative 10.1.1
position and order of
pronouns 10.1.1
present imperative 10.1.1
replaced by in nitive 10.2.3
with two pronouns 3.6.2,
10.1.1
use of subjunctive 11.7.6
uses 10.1.2
Imperfect indicative 9.4
Key point 9.4.3
formation 9.4.1
imperfect and the simple past
contrasted 9.7
orthographic and phonetic
changes 9.4.2
sequence of tenses 9.4.3
with
si 9.4.3
uses 9.4.3
Imperfect subjunctive 11.3
formation 11.3.1
uses
11.3.2
Impersonal verbs 8.5
avoir auxiliary 8.2.2
time 3.1.5
verb type 8.2
weather 3.1.5
in
(=
à
) 12.5, 12.5.1
(=
dans) 12.5, 12.5.20
(=
de) 12.5.22
(=
en) 12.5.29
(=
sur) 12.5.54
before geographical names
12.6
Inde nite article
2.4
Key points 2.4
des 2.4.1
des
inde nite article vs. des
contracted de nite article
2.4.1
uses
2.4.1
Inde nite pronoun 3.11
Key points
3.11
Indicative tenses Chapter 9
compound conditional 9.13
compound future 9.11
compound past 9.5
conditional 9.12
future 9.10
imperfect 9.4
past anterior 9.9
pluperfect 9.8
present 9.3
simple past 9.6
Indirect object 3.2
Key points 3.2
after transitive verb 8.3.1
indirect object in French =
English direct object 3.2.1
lui and leur 3.2.3
position 3.2.4
Indirect questions 15.1.5
Key points 15.1.5
with
ce qui
and ce que 15.1.5
with
si 15.1.5
In nitive 10.2
Key points 10.2
after prepositions 10.2.3
after verbs of perception
10.2.3
compound past in nitive
10.2.2
followed by
à 10.2.6
followed by
de 10.2.6
followed by a preposition
10.2.6
forms 10.2.2
as a noun 10.2.4,
10.2.5
past in nitive 10.2.1,10.2.2
preceded by past participle
10.6.4
replacing the imperative
10.2.3
uses 10.2.3
in x 8.6.2, 9.2.1
in front of 12.5.28
-ing form in English 10.5.5
in no way 7.8
in order to 12.5.23, 12.5.24,
12.5.47
instead of 12.5.13
interjections 15.2.3
into
(=
dans) 12.5.20
(=
en) 12.5.29
Intransitive verbs
8.3
change of meaning 8.3.2
conjugation with
être 8.2.2
verbs of state
8.2.1
verb type 8.2
Inversion
after certain adverbs 3.1.4,
6.6
insertion of -t- 3.1.4, 15.1.1
in questions 3.1.4, 15.1.1
replacing subjunctive
3.1.4
subject/verb inversion 3.1,
3.1.4
Irregular verbs
imperatives 10.1.1
present participle 10.4.1
past participle 10.6.2
-re verb endings 9.2.4
Verb tables pp. 398–422
it (impersonal) 3.1.5
jamais 6.5.3,
7.6, 8.6.2
jusqu’à 12.5.39
jusqu’à ce que 11.7.3, 13.4
just as
13.3.2
juste 4.1.3
là 6.3.4
laisser
followed by in nitive
10.6.4
object + in nitive 3.2.4
semi-auxiliary
8.2.4
with two object pronouns
3.6.3
languages (gender) 1.2.5
last 4.1.4, 5.2, 11.7.5
le 3.2.2
the least 4.12. 6.4.2
lequel / laquelle / lesquels /
lesquelles(?)
14.8
, 15.1.3
less 5.9
less … than 4.12
letters (gender) 1.2.5
leur
3.2.3
linking verbs 8.2.1
loin (de) 6.3.4,
12.5.40
long 4.1.2, 4.2.10, 5.7, 6.2
longtemps 6.3.3, 8.6.2
lors de 12.5.41
lorsque 9.9.2, 9.10.3, 9.11.2,
13.3.3
lui 3, 3.2.1, 3.2.3, 3.7
l’un l’autre 8.4.1
made of
12.5.29
maintenant 6.3.3
mais 13.1.4
mal
6.3.1, 6.4.2
malgré 12.5.42
manquer (de) 8.2.4, 8.6.4
mass nouns
1.1.2, 2.5.1
mauvais
4.1.2, 4.2.12, 4.12
may 8.2.5
me 3.2.4
means of transport (gender)
1.2.3
measurements 1.2.5
, 5.7
méchant 4.1.3
meilleur, le meilleur
4.2.13,
4.12, 11.7.5
même
3.11, 4.1.3
même si 13.3.4
INDEX
INDEX
437
metals (gender) 1.2.5
mieux, le mieux 6.1, 6.3.1,
6.4.2
mine 3.10
Modal verbs 8.2.5
devoir
8.2.5
falloir 8.2.5
pouvoir 8.2.5
savoir 8.2.5
vouloir 8.2.5
moi 3.2.4, 3.6.2, 3.7
moi-même etc. 3.5.6
moindre 4.12
moins, le moins 4.12, 6.3.2
,
6.4.1,
6.4.2
moins de 5.9
moins … que 4.12, 6.4.1
moitié 5.8
Mood
in French
8.2
imperative 10.1
indicative 9.2.5
speaker’s intention 9.1
subjunctive 11
monter
9.5.2
more 4.12, 5.9,
6.4.2
more … than 4.12
the most 4.12, 6.4.2
mou 4.3, 6.2
mourir 8.6.3, 9.5.2
much, many 5.9
must 8.2.5
my 2.8.1
myself, yourself
etc. 3.5
naître 9.5.2, 10.6.2
nationality (adjectives of) 4.1.1
ne
omission in speech 7.14
without a negative sense
7.17
ne ... aucun 7.4
ne … guère
7.1, 7.3, 7.5
ne … jamais 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.6
ne… ni … ni 7.7, 13.1.5
ne … nul(le) 7.8
ne … nullement 7.8
ne … nulle part 7.8
ne … pas 6.3.6, 7.1, 7.9
ne … personne 7.2, 7.10
ne … plus 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.11
ne … point 7
ne … que 7.12
ne … rien 6.3.6, 7.1, 7.2, 7.13
near (to)
6.3.4, 12.5.48
Negation Chapter 7
Key points 7
de
with a direct object in
negative sentences 2.4.1,
7.3
gender 1.2.5
negative adverbs
6.3.6
negative words with
sans
7.18
omission of
ne in speech 7.14
omission of
pas 7.9
order of negative expressions
7.2
position in compound tenses
7.1
position with in nitives
7.1
position of negative
expressions 7.1
use of
ne without a negative
sense
7.17
use of
non and si
7.15
neither … nor 7.7, 13.1.5
n’est-ce pas ?
7.16, 15.1.2
never, not ever 7.1, 7.2
, 7.3, 7.6
new 4.1.2, 4.3
ni 3.8, 7.2, 10.6.4, 13.1.5
no, not any 5.9, 7.4
, 7.8
nobody, no one 3.11, 7.10,
11.7.5
no more, no longer 7.11
non 7.15
non plus 7.11
not
7.9
nothing 3.11,
7.13
notre and le nôtre 3.10
Nouns Chapter 1
Key points 1
abbreviations 1.1.6
acronyms 1.1.6
adjectives used as nouns
4.10.2
collective 1.1.3
compound nouns 1.2.16
,
1.3.13–21
concrete and abstract 1.1.1,
2.3
count and mass 1.1.2
gender 1.2
gens 1.1.5, 1.2.14
in nitive as a noun 10.2.4,
10.2.5
irregular feminine nouns
1.2.9
number 1.3
professions 1.2.11
proper nouns and common
nouns 1
separate male / female forms
1.2.10
shortened words 1.1.7
simple and compound 1.1.4
with no singular form 1.3.9
types of nouns 1.1
used mainly in the plural
1.3.10
nouveau 4.1.2, 4.3, 4.4.2, 6.2
nowhere 7.8
nu 1.3.17, 4.11
nul 3.11, 4.1.3, 4.2.4
Numbers Chapter 5
Key points 5
agreement 5
approximate numbers
5.4
cardinal numbers 5.1
dates 5.6
distance 5.6
to express time
5.5
following the noun 5
fractions and calculations 5.8
measurements 5.7
ordinal numbers 5.2
pronunciation 5.1.2
quanti ers 5.9
time 5.5
word order when cardinal
and ordinal number 5.3
Object pronouns 3
after af rmative imperative
3.6.2
after
devoir and pouvoir 3.6.4
co-ordination 3.8
following the in nitive 3.6.3
moi and
toi with the
af rmative imperative
3.6.2
order of object pronouns
3.6.1
two object prounns before
verb 3.6.1
œil 1.3.6
of 12.5.22
often
6.3.3, 6.5.3,
8.6.2
old 4.1.2, 4.3
on 3.1, 3.1.3, 4.6, 8.2.3,
10.6.4
on
(=
à) 12.5.1
(=
dans) 2.5.20
(=
par) 12.5.43
(=
sur) 12.5.54
one
(inde nite)
3.11
(number) 2.4.1, 5,
5.1
(=
on) 3.1
the one(s) 3.9
only 7.12
on top of 12.5.34
INDEX
438
onze 5.1.3
opposite 12.5.33
or 13.1.6
or 7.7
Ordinal numbers 5.2
abbreviated forms 1.3.7
formation 5.2.1
ordinal and cardinal numbers
together 5.3
placed before the noun
4.1.2
premier 5.2.2
replaced by cardinal numbers
5.2.4
second(e) and deuxième 5.2.3
orgue 1.2.13
orthographic rules Appendix pp.
393
–5
ou 3.8,
4.7.1, 10.6.4, 13.1.7
où
interrogative 15.1.3
relative
14.2, 14.7
ought to
8.2.5
our 2.8.1
ours 3.10
out of
(= dans) 12.5.20
(=
hors de) 12.5.38
(=
par) 12.5.43
(=
sur) 12.5.54
outside 12.5.31
over
12.5.12
own 2.8.1
Pâque(s) 1.2.12
par
10.2.6, 12.5.43
paraître 3.1.4, 8.2.1, 8.2.4,
10.6.2
parce que 13.3.2
parfois 6.3.3, 6.5.3, 8.6.2
parmi 12.5.44
par rapport à 12.4.45
Participles 10.3
Key points
10.3
past participle 10.5
present participle 10.4
as a verb 10.3
as a verbal adjective
10.3
partir 9.5.2
Partitive article 2.5
Key points 2.5
with abstract nouns 2.5,
2.5.1
after a negative 2.5
de partitive contrasted with
de preposition 2.5.1
with mass nouns 2.5,
2.5.1
parts of the body 2.3.2, 2.8.1,
3.5.4
partout 6.3.4
pas 7.9
pas de 5.9, 7.3
Passive voice
8.2.3
agent 8.2.3
with auxiliary être
8.2.2
on as alternative to passive
8.2.3
pronominal verbs
8.4.1
re exive pronouns 3.5.2
re exive verb as alternative
to passive
8.2.3
Past anterior tense 9.9
Key point 9.9.1
formation 9.9.1
use 9.9.2
Past participle 10.6
as adjective 10.6.3
agreement between
que and
que 10.6.4
agreement between
que and
qui 10.6.4
agreement with
avoir
auxiliary
10.6.4
agreement with collective
nouns 10.6.4
agreement with
en 10.6.4
agreement with
être
auxiliary
10.6.4
agreement with
on 10.6.4
agreement with relative
pronoun 14.1
followed by an in nitive
10.6.4
formation 10.6.1
impersonal verbs 10.6.4
invariable expressions
10.6.4
irregular forms 10.6.2
as nouns 10.6.3
pronominal verbs 10.6.4
uses 10.6.3
pauvre 4.1.3, 4.2.2, 4.2.15,
4.10.2
pendant 12.5.46
pendant que 13.3.3
penser (à) 3.1.4, 3.3.2, 10.2.6
people 1.1.5
, 1.2.14,
3.1
per 12.5.43
perhaps 3.1.4
personne 1.2.12, 3.11, 7.10,
11.7.5
petit 4.1.2, 4.12
peu 6.3.2, 6.4.2
peu de 5.9
peu à peu 8.6.2
peut-être (que) 3.1.4, 6.6
phonetic alphabet Appendix pp.
396
–7
pire
4.12
pis 6.4.2
Pluperfect indicative
9.8
Key point 9.8.2
in conditional clauses 9.8.2
formation 9.8.1
uses
9.8.2
Pluperfect subjunctive 11.4
formation 11.4.1
uses 11.4.2
Plural of nouns 1.3
abbreviations, acronyms,
symbols 1.3.7
change of meaning in plural
1.3.11
compound nouns 1.3.13–
1.3.20
foreign borrowings 1.3.21
nouns normally used in the
plural 1.3.8
nouns used in both singular
and plural 1.3.12
nouns with no singular form
1.3.9
nouns with two plural forms
1.3.6
plus, le plus 4.12, 6.3.2, 6.4.1,
6.4.2, 7.11
plus de
5.9
plus ... que 4.12, 6.4.1
plusieurs 3.11, 5.9
plutôt 6.3.1
Possessive determiner
2.8
Key points 2.8.1
forms 2.8.1
leur determiner contrasted
with
leur
pronoun 2.8.1
mon, ton,
son before vowel
and silent
‘h’ 2.8.1
with
propre 2.8.1
Possessive pronoun
3.10
Key points 3.10
forms 3.10
possessive with
à
+ stressed
pronoun 3.10.1
possible 4.11
pour 10.2.6
, 12.5.47
pour que 11.7.3, 13.4
pourvu que 11.7.3, 13.4
pouvoir 8.2.5
modal verb
8.2.5
as a noun 10.2.4
object pronouns and
in nitive 3.6.4
,
-oir irregular verb 9.2.4
omission of
pas 7.9
past participle
10.6.2
semi-auxiliary 8.2.4
INDEX
INDEX
439
pre xes: re- / ré ; en- ; par-
8.6.2
premier 4.1.4, 5.2.2, 5.6
Prepositions Chapter 12
Key points 12
adjectives and adverbs +
prepositions 12.3
before in nitive 10.2.3
co-ordination 12.1
differentiating prepositions
and adverbs 12.4
following in nitive 10.2.6
‘in’, and ‘to’ before
geographical names 12.6
uses 12.5
verb + preposition
constructions 12.2
près (de) 6.3.4, 12.5.48
Present indicative 9.3
Key point 9.3.2
formation 9.3.1
orthographic and phonetic
changes 9.3.1
uses 9.3.2
Present participle 10.4
as an adjective 10.4.2
agreement as an adjective
10.4.2
with
aller 10.4.2
archaic expressions 10.4.1
compound form 10.4.4
contrasted with verbal
adjective 10.4.3
formation 10.4.1
meaning and uses 10.4.2
as a noun 10.4.5
as a preposition 10.4.5
replacing a causal clause
10.4.2
replacing a
qui clause 10.4.2
as a verb 10.4.2
Present subjunctive 11.1
in exclamations 15.2.2
formation 11.1.1
irregular verbs 11.1.1
presque 6.5.1
pretty 4.1.2
prochain 4.1.4
Pronominal verbs 8.4
with auxiliary
être 8.2.2
passive meaning 8.4.1
pronominal and non-
pronominal 8.4.1
reciprocal use 8.4.1
re exive pronouns 3.5.1
re exive use 8.4.1
verbs found only in
pronominal form 8.4.2
Pronouns Chapter 3
co-ordination 3.8
demonstrative 3.9
direct object 3, 3.2
en 3, 3.4
with imperatives 10.1.1
inde nite 3.11
indirect object 3, 3.2
interrogative 15.1
on 3.1, 3.1.3
order of object pronouns 3.6
possessive 3.10
re exive 3.5
relative 14.1-14.9
subject 3, 3.1
y 3, 3.3
pronunciation of numbers
cent 5.1.4
six and dix 5.1.4
vingt 5.1.4
proper nouns 1,
2.6
propre 2.8.1, 4.1.3
provided that 13.4
puis (conjunction) 13.8
puis-je 8.2.5
punctuation Appendix pp.
386–90
quand
conjunction 13.3.3
followed by future 9.9.2,
9.10.3, 9.11.2
interrogative 15.1.3
quant à 12.5.49
quanti ers 5.9
que / qu’ 10.6.4, 13.3.1, 14.2,
14.4
que /qu’ ? 15.1.3
quel / quelle / quels / quelles
exclamatory 15.2.1
interrogative
15.1.3
quelque chose 3.11
quelquefois 6.3.3, 8.6.2
quelques 5.9
quelqu’un 3.11, 5.9
qu’est-ce qui / que ? 15.1.3
Questions 15.1
est-ce que ? 15.1.1
expecting yes/no answers
15.1.1
indirect questions
15.1.5
placing of question words
15.1.3
subject–verb inversion 15.1.1
question tags 7.15, 15.1.2
qui 10.6.4, 14.2, 14.3
qui ? 15.1.3
qui est-ce qui / que ? 15.1.3
quoi
exclamatory 15.2.1
interrogative
15.1.3
relative 14.2, 14.5
quoique 11.7.3, 13.4
quoique and quoi que 14.5
radical
9.2.1
rather (than) 6.3.1, 13.3.2
re- / ré- 8.6.2
really 6.3.5
récent 6.2
reciprocal verbs 3.5, 3.5.2,
8.4.1
Re exive pronouns 3.5
Key points 3.5
addition of
moi-même etc.
3.5.6
forms 3.5
with parts of the body 3.5.4
passive meaning 3.5.3
in pronominal verbs 3.5.1,
8.4
reciprocal use 3.5.2
re exive pronoun with no
English equivalent 3.5.5
re exive verbs 8.4.1
Relative pronouns Chapter 14
Key points 14
agreement with the past
participle 14.1
dont 14.6
invariable
qui, que, quoi, dont,
où 14.2
lequel 14.8
où 14.7
que / qu’ 1.7.6, 14.4
qui 14.3
quoi 14.5
replaced by a present
participle
10.4.2
restrictive and non-restrictive
clauses 14.9
rester 9.5.2
rien 3.11, 7.13
rire 8.4.3
se rire de 8.4.3
sale 4.1.3, 4.2.2
same
3.11, 4.1.3
sans 7.18, 10.5.4, 12.5.50
sans que 7.17, 13.4
sauf (que) 12.5.51, 13.3.2
savoir 8.2.5
imperative
10.1.1
with indirect question 15.1.5
modal verb 8.2.5
as a noun 10.2.4
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
INDEX
440
omission of pas 7.9
past participle 10.6.2
present participle 10.4.1
semi-auxiliary 8.2.4
second(e) / deuxième 5.2.2
se demander 8.4
seeing that 13.3.2
selon 12.5.52
sembler 3.1.4
semi-auxiliary verbs 8.2, 8.2.4
sequence of tenses 9.4.3, 9.10.3,
9.12.3
se servir de 3.2.5
seul 4.1.3
seul à seul 4.11
several
3.11, 5.9
should 8.2.5
si
adverb of assertion 6.3.5
adverb of degree 6.3.2
response to negative question
7.15
, 15.1.4
si (hypothesis)
conditional conjunction 9.14,
13.3.4
indirect questions 15.1.5
si bien que 13.5
silent
‘h’ 2.2
simple nouns 1.1.4
Simple past tense 9.6
Key point 9.6.2
formation 9.6.1
imperfect and simple past
contrasted 9.7
uses 9.6.2
since
(=
car) 13.1.1
(=
depuis) 6.3.3, 12.5.25
(=
depuis que) 13.3.3
sinon que 13.3.2
so 13.1.2
so as to
12.5.4, 12.5.23, 12.5.24
soi 3.7, 3.7.1
some 2.4, 2.5, 3.11
someone 3.11
something 3.11
sometimes 6.3.3
soon 6.3.3, 8.6.2
sortir 9.5 2, 10.2.6
so that 13.4, 13.5
sous 12.5.53
souvent 6.3.3, 6.5.3, 8.6.2
still 6.3.3
Stressed pronouns 3.7
Key points 3.7
à + stressed pronoun for
possession 3.10.1
after
c’est 3.7
in comparisons 3.7
used for contrast 3.7
co-ordination 3.8
forms 3.7
after prepositions 3.7
with
seul, pas, non plus and
aussi
3.7
soi 3.7.1
standing alone 3.7
Subject pronouns 3, 3.1
agreement 3.1
ça 3.1.5
co-ordination 3.8
elision 3
ils and elles 3.1.2
impersonal
il 3.1.5
on 3.1
, 3.1.3
l’on 3.1.3
position 3.1
subject/verb inversion 3.1.4
tu and vous 3.1.1
Subjunctive Chapter 11
beginning a sentence 11.7.6
compound past subjunctive
11.2
double compound past
subjunctive 11.5
imperfect subjunctive 11.3
after impersonal expressions
11.7.4
indeterminate antecedent
11.7.5
pluperfect subjunctive 11.4
present subjunctive 11.1
after purpose conjunctions
11.7.3
in subordinate clauses 11.7.1
summary chart of tenses 11.6
after a superlative 11.7.5
after time conjunctions
11.7.3
uses 11.7
after verbs expressing doubt,
11.7.1–11.7.2
Subordinating conjunctions 13.2
suf xes 8.6.2
Superlative 4.12, 6.4.1
absolute 4.12, 6.4.1
followed by the subjunctive
11.7.5
‘in’ after superlative 12.5.22
relative 4.12, 6.4.1
sur 5.8, 12.5.54
sur le point de 8.6.4, 12.5.55
tandis que 13.3.2
tant 6.3.2
te 3.2.4
tel 3.11
tellement 6.3.2
Tense
8.2, 9.1
indicative 9.1–9.14
simple and compound 9.1
subjunctive 11.1–11.6
summary of tenses 9.1
time and tense 9.1
thanks to 12.5.37
that 13.3.1, 14.3
the 2.3
their 2.8.1
theirs 3.10
then 13.1.8
there 3.3, 6.3.4
they 3.1, 3.1.2, 3.1.3
this, that, these, those (ones)
2.7, 3.9
through 12.5.43
time 3.1.5, 5.5, 8.5
time and tense 9.1
titles 2.3.2
to
(=
à) 12.5.1
(=
en) 12.5.29
toi 3.2.4, 3.6.2, 3.7
tomber 8.2.1, 8.6.3, 9.5.2
too much/many
5.9, 6.3.2,
6.4.1, 10.6.4
tôt 6.3.3
toujours 6.3.3, 6.5.3, 8.6.2
toujours est-il que 3.1.4
tous 3.11, 5.9
tout 3.11, 11.7.5
tout + gerund 10.5.3
tout de suite 6.1
tout le monde 3.11
towards 12.5.36
, 12.5.56
Transitive verbs 8.3
with auxiliary
avoir 8.2.2
change of meaning 8.3.2
double transitive verb
8.3.1
type of verb 8.2
trees (gender) 1.2.5
très 6.3.2, 6.4.1
triste 4.1.3
trop (de) 5.9, 6.3.2, 6.4.1,
10.6.4
tu/vous 3.1.1
tutoyer 3.1.1
un/une
cardinal number 5.1.1
de nite article and number
2.4.1
followed by subjunctive
11.7.5
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
notoriously
INDEX
INDEX
441
under 12.5.53
unless 12.5.6, 13.4
until 12.5.39, 13.4
used to 8.6.2, 9.4
vachement 6.2
venir 8.2.4, 9.2.4, 9.5.2
venir de 8.2.4, 8.6.4, 10.2.6
Verb Chapters 8-11
of action
8.1
active and passive voice 8.2.3
auxiliary 8.2
defective 9.2.3
gerund
10.5
groups 8.1, 9.2.4
impersonal verbs 8.5
imperative 10.1
indicative tenses 9.2–9.14
in nitive 10.2
linking verbs 8.2.1
mood 8.2
participles 10.3
past participle 10.6
present participle 10.4
pronominal verbs 8.4
the radical and verb endings
9.2
re exive and non-re exive
forms 8.4.3
semi-auxiliary 8.2, 8.2.4
of state 8.2.1, 8.3.2
subjunctive tenses 11.1–11.6
tense 8.2
three groups 9.2.4
transitive and intransitive
verbs 8.2, 8.3
types of verbs 8.2
verb + preposition
constructions 10.2.6, 12.2
verbal aspect 8.6
Verb tables pp. 398–422
verbal adjective 4.2.13, 4.2.14,
4.13
vers 12.5.56
via 12.5.43
vieux 4.1.2, 4.3
vingt 5.1.4
vite 6.3.1
voice 8.2
voir 10.2.3,
10.2.6
votre and le vôtre 3.10
vouloir 8.2.5
followed by in nitive
10.2.6
followed by subjunctive
11.7.1
modal verb 8.2.5
past participle 10.6.2
semi-auxiliary
8.2.4
vouvoyer 3.1.1
vrai 4.1.3, 6.2
vraiment 6.3.5
vu 10.6.4
vu que 13.3.2
want, wish
8.2.5
weather 3.1.5,
8.5
well 6.1, 6.4.2
what
exclamatory 15.2.1
interrogative 15.1.3, 15.1.5
relative 14.4, 14.5
when
interrogative 15.1.3
conjunction 13.3.3
where
interrogative 15.1.3
relative 14.7
whether 13.3.4, 15.1.5
which 14.3, 14.4, 14.5, 14.8
which (one[s])? 15.1.3
while 13.3.2, 13.3.3
while + -ing 12.5.29
who
interrogative 15.1.3
relative 14.3, 14.4
who(m)
interrogative 15.1.3
relative 14.4, 14.8
whoever 3.11
whose 14.6, 14.8
why? 15.1.3
will, shall 9.10
wine (gender) 1.2.3
with
(=
à) 12.5.1
(=
avec) 12.5.17
(=
chez) 12.5.18
(=
de) 12.5.22
with regard to
12.5.45
without 7.18,
10.5.4, 12.5.50,
13.4
worse 4.12, 6.4.2
the worst 4.12, 6.4.2
would 8.6.2, 9.4, 9.12
y 3.3
Key points 3.3
in certain verb constructions
3.2.2
with imperatives 10.1.1
indicating location 3.3.1
phrases containing y
3.3.3
y compris 10.6.4
yes 15.1.4
you 3.1.1
your 2.8.1
yours
3.10
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FRENCH
Grammar
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French Grammar and
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